Abstract
The current investigation explored the diagnostic utility of reading fluency measures in the identification of children with reading disabilities. Participants were 50 children referred to a university-based clinic because of suspected reading problems and/or a prior diagnosis of dyslexia, where children completed a battery of standardized intellectual, reading achievement, and processing measures. Within this clinical sample, a group of children were identified that exhibited specific deficits in their reading fluency skills with concurrent deficits in rapid naming speed and reading comprehension. This group of children would not have been identified as having a reading disability according to assessment of single word reading skills alone, suggesting that it is essential to assess reading fluency in addition to word reading because failure to do so may result in the under-identification of children with reading disabilities.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington: American Psychiatric Association.
Anderson, R. C., Wilson, P. T., & Fielding, L. G. (1988). Growth in reading and how children spend their time outside of school. Reading Research Quarterly, 23, 285–303.
August, G. J., & Garfinkel, B. D. (1990). Comorbidity of ADHD and reading disability among clinic-referred children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 18, 29–45.
Bowers, P. G. (1993). Text reading and rereading: Determinants of fluency beyond word recognition. Journal of Reading Behavior, 25, 133–153.
Breen, M. J., & Drecktrah, M. (1990). Similarity among common measures of academic achievement: Implications for assessing disabled children. Psychological Reports, 67, 379–383.
Breznitz, Z., & Berman, L. (2003). The underlying factors of word reading rate. Educational Psychology Review, 15, 247–265.
Chall, J. S. (1996). Stages of reading development (2nd ed.). Fort Worth: Harcourt-Brace.
Chall, J. S., Jacobs, V., & Baldwin, L. (1990). The reading crisis. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Deno, S. L. (2003). Developments in curriculum-based measurement. Remedial and Special Education, 37, 184–192.
Dombrowski, S. C., Kamphaus, R. W., & Reynolds, C. R. (2004). After the demise of the discrepancy: Proposed learning disabilities diagnostic criteria. Professional Psychology, Research and Practice, 35, 364–372.
Fletcher, J. M. (1985). External validation of learning disability subtype. In B. P. Rourke (Ed.), Neuropsychology essentials of subtype analysis (pp. 187–211). New York: Guilford.
Fletcher, J. M., Shaywitz, S. E., Shankweiler, D. P., Katz, L., Liberman, I. Y., Stuebing, K. K., et al. (1994). Cognitive profiles of reading disability: Comparisons of discrepancy and low achievement definitions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 6–23.
Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Hosp, M. K., & Jenkins, J. R. (2001). Text fluency as an indicator of reading competence: A theoretical, empirical, and historical analysis. Scientific Studies of Reading, 5(3), 239–256.
Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., & Maxwell, L. (1988). The validity of informal reading comprehension measures. Remedial and Special Education, 9, 20–28.
Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEA), Pub. L. No. 108–446, 118 Stat. 2647 (2004).
Jenkins, J. R., Fuchs, L. S., Van Der Broek, P., Epsin, C., & Deno, S. L. (2003a). Sources of individual differences in reading comprehension and reading fluency. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 719–729.
Jenkins, J. R., Fuchs, L. S., Van Der Broek, P., Epsin, C., & Deno, S. L. (2003b). Accuracy and fluency in list and context reading of skilled and RD groups: Absolute and relative performance levels. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 18, 237–245.
Katzir, T., Kim, Y. S., Wolf, M., Morris, R., & Lovett, M. (2008). The varieties of pathways to dysfluent reading: Comparing subtypes of children with dyslexia at letter, word, and connected text levels of reading. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 41, 47–66.
Katzir, T., Shaul, S., Breznitz, Z., & Wolf, M. (2004). The universal and the unique in dyslexia: A cross-linguistic investigation of reading and reading fluency in hebrew- and English-speaking children with reading disorders. Reading and Writing, 17, 739–768.
Kaufman, A. S., & Kaufman, N. L. (1985). Kaufman test of educational achievement. Circle Pines: American Guidance Service.
Kuhn, M. R., & Stahl, S. A. (2004). Fluency: A review of developmental and remedial practices. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(1), 3–21.
LaBerge, D., & Samuels, S. (1974). Toward a theory of automatic information processing in reading. Cognitive Psychology, 6, 293–323.
Lefly, D. L., & Pennington, B. F. (1991). Spelling errors and reading fluency in compensated adult dyslexics. Annals of Dyslexia, 41, 143–162.
Leinonen, S., Muller, K., Leppanen, P., Aro, M., Ahonen, T., & Lyytinen, H. (2001). Heterogeneity in adult dyslexic readers: Relating processing skills to the speed and accuracy of oral text reading. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 14, 265–296.
Lesile, L., & Caldwell, J. (1995). Qualitative reading inventory—2. New York: Longman.
Liberman, I. Y., & Shankwiler, D. (1991). Phonology and beginning reading: A tutorial. In L. Rieben & C. A. Perfetti (Eds.), Basic research and its implications (pp. 3–17). Rieben: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Lombardino, L. J., Riccio, C., Hynd, G. W., & Pinheiro, S. B. (1997). Linguistic deficits in children with reading disabilities. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 6(3), 71–78.
Lovett, M. W. (1984). A developmental perspective on reading dysfunction: Accuracy and rate in the subtyping of dyslexic children. Brain and Language, 22, 67–91.
Lovett, M. W. (1987). A developmental approach to reading disability: Accuracy and speed criteria of normal and deficient reading skill. Child Development, 58, 234–260.
Lyon, G. R. (1995). Towards a definition of dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 45, 3–27.
Lyon, G. R., & Moats, L. C. (1997). Critical conceptual and methodological considerations in reading intervention research. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30, 578–588.
Lyon, G. R., Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2003). A definition of dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 53, 1–14.
McCabe, P. P., Margolis, H., & Barenabum, E. (2001). A comparison of Woodcock–Johnson psycho-educational battery-revised and qualitative reading inventory—II instructional reading levels. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 17, 279–289.
Meisinger, E. B., Schwanenflugel, P. J., & Woo, D. (2009). The contribution of text reading fluency to reading comprehension in the elementary grades. Unpublished manuscript.
Meyer, M. R., & Felton, R. H. (1999). Repeated reading to enhance fluency: Old approaches and new directions. Annals of Dyslexia, 49, 283–306.
Morris, R. D., Stuebing, K. K., Fletcher, J. M., Shaywitz, S. E., Lyon, G. R., Shankweiler, D. P., et al. (1998). Subtypes of reading disability: Variability around a phonological core. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 347–373.
Nation, K., & Snowling, M. (1997). Assessing reading difficulties: The validity and utility of current measures of reading skill. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 67, 259–370.
National Reading Panel. (2000). Report of the national reading panel. Washington: National Reading Panel.
Perfetti, C. (1985). Reading ability. New York: Oxford Press.
Pikulski, J. J., & Chard, D. J. (2005). Fluency: Bridge between decoding and reading comprehension. Reading Teacher, 58, 510–519.
Pinnell, G. S., Pikulski, J. J., Wixon, K. K., Campbell, J. R., Gough, P. B., & Beatty, A. S. (1995). Listening to children read aloud. Washington: US Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics.
Raskinski, T. V. (2001). Speed does matter in reading. The Reading Teacher, 54(2), 146–156.
Schwanenflugel, P. J., Meisinger, E. B., Wisenbaker, J., Kuhn, M., & Morris, R. (2006). Becoming a fluent and automatic reader: A cross-sectional study. Reading Research Quarterly, 41, 469–522.
Shankweiler, D., Crain, S., Katz, L., Fowler, A. E., Liberman, A. M., Brady, S. A., et al. (1995). Cognitive profiles of reading-disabled children: Comparison of language skills in phonology, morphology, and syntax. Psychological Science, 6, 149–156.
Shankweiler, D., Lundquist, E., Katz, L., Stuebing, K., & Fletcher, J. M. (1999). Comprehension and decoding: Patterns of association in children with reading difficulties. Scientific Studies of Reading, 3, 69–85.
Shaywitz, S. E. (2003). Overcoming dyslexia: A new and completely science-based program for reading problems at any level. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Shaywitz, B. A., Fletcher, J. M., Holahan, J. M., Shneider, A. E., Marchione, K. E., Stuebing, K. K., et al. (1995). Innerrelationships between reading disability and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Child Neuropsychology, 1, 170–186.
Shinn, M. R., Good, R. H., Knutson, N., Tilly, W. D., & Collins, V. L. (1992). Curriculum-based measurement of oral reading fluency: A confirmatory analysis of its relation to reading. School Psychology Review, 21, 459–479.
Siegel, L. (1999). Issues in the definition and diagnosis of learning disabilities: A perspective on Guckenberger v. Boston University. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 32, 304–319.
Sofie, C. A., & Riccio, C. A. (2002). A comparison of multiple methods for the identification of children with reading disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35, 234–244.
Stage, S. A., Sheppard, J., Davison, M., Davidson, M. M., & Browning, M. M. (2001). Prediction of first-graders’ growth in oral reading fluency using kindergarten letter fluency. Journal of School Psychology, 39, 225–237.
Stanovich, K. E. (1999). The sociometrics of learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 32, 350–361.
Stanovich, K. E., & Siegel, L. S. (1994). Phenotypic performance profile of children with reading disabilities: A regression-based test of phonological-core variable-difference model. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 24–53.
Stecker, P. M., & Fuchs, L. S. (2000). Effecting superior achievement using curriculum based measurement: The importance of individual progress monitoring. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 15, 128–135.
Stuebing, K. K., Fletcher, J. M., LeDoux, J. M., Lyon, G. R., Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2002). Validity if IQ-discrepancy classification of reading disabilities: A met-analysis. American Educational research Journal, 39, 469–518.
Taylor, B. M., Frye, B. J., & Maruyama, G. M. (1990). Time spent reading and readinggrowth. American Educational Research Journal, 27, 351–362.
The Psychological Corporation. (1999). Wechsler abbreviated scale of intelligence. San Antonio: The Psychological Corporation.
Torgesen, J. K., Rashotte, C. A., & Alexander, A. W. (2001). Principles of fluency instruction in reading: Relationships with established empirical outcomes. In M. Wolf (Ed.), Dyslexia, fluency, & the brain. Timonium: New York Press.
Vellutino, F. R., Fletcher, J. M., Snowling, M. J., & Scanlon, D. M. (2004). Specific reading disability (dyslexia): What have we learned in the past four decades? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 2–40.
Vellutino, F. R., Scanlon, D. M., & Lyon, R. G. (2000). Differentiating between difficult-to-remediate and readily remediated poor readers. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33, 223–238.
Vellutino, F. R., Scanlon, D. M., Sipay, E. R., Small, S. G., Pratt, A., Chen, R., et al. (1996). Cognitive profile of difficult-to-remediate and readily remediated poor readers: Early interventions as a vehicle for distinguishing between cognitive and experiential deficits as basic causes of specific reading disabilities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 601–638.
Wagner, R. K., Torgesen, J. K., & Rashotte, C. A. (1999). Comprehensive test of phonological processing. Austin: Pro-Ed.
Wayman, M. M., Wallace, T., Wiley, H. I., Tichdt, R., & Espin, C. A. (2007). Literature synthesis on curriculum-based measurement in reading. The Journal of Special Education, 41(2), 85–120.
Wiederholt, J. L., & Bryant, B. R. (1986). Gray oral reading tests—revised (GORT-R). Austin: Pro-ed.
Wiederholt, J. L., & Bryant, B. R. (1995). Gray oral reading tests—third edition (GORT-3). Austin: Pro-ed.
Wiederholt, J. L., & Bryant, B. R. (2001). Gray oral reading tests—fourth edition (GORT-4). Austin: Pro-ed.
Wolf, M., & Bowers, P. (1999). The “Double-Deficit Hypothesis” for the developmental dyslexic. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 1–24.
Wolf, M., Bowers, P., & Biddle, K. (2000). Naming-speed processes, timing, and reading: A conceptual review. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33, 387–407.
Wolf, M., & Katzir-Cohen, T. (2001). Reading fluency and its intervention. Scientific Studies of Reading, 5, 211–229.
Wolf, M., O’Rourke, A., Gidney, C., Lovett, M., Cirino, P., & Morris, R. (2002). The second deficit: An investigation of the independence of phonological and naming-speed deficits in developmental dyslexia. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 15, 43–72.
Woodcock, R. W. (1998a). Woodcock reading mastery tests–revised. Circle Pines: American Guidance Service.
Woodcock, R. W. (1998b). Woodcock reading mastery test—revised. Circle Pines: AGS.
Woodcock, R. W., & Mather, N. (1990). Woodcock–Johnson psycho-educational battery-revised, tests of achievement. Chicago: Riverside.
Woodcock, R. W., McGrew, K. S., & Mather, N. (2001). Woodcock–Johnson III test of achievement. Itasca: Riverside.
Young, A. R., & Bowers, P. G. (1995). Individual differences and text difficulty determinants of reading fluency and expressiveness. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 60, 428–454.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
This project was supported in part by a grant from the National Institute for Child Health and Human Developmental, National Institutes of Health (NICHD/NIH no. 26890-06).
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Meisinger, E.B., Bloom, J.S. & Hynd, G.W. Reading fluency: implications for the assessment of children with reading disabilities. Ann. of Dyslexia 60, 1–17 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-009-0031-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-009-0031-z