Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Primary and Secondary Production of Germanium: A Life-Cycle Assessment of Different Process Alternatives

  • Published:
JOM Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Germanium is a semiconducting metalloid element used in optical fibers, catalysis, infrared optics, solar cells, and light-emitting diodes. The need for Ge in these markets is considered to increase by a steady ~1% on a yearly basis. Its economic importance, coupled with the identified supply risks, has led to the classification of germanium as a critical raw material within Europe. Since the early 1950s, Umicore Electro-Optic Materials has supplied germanium-based materials solutions to its markets around the world. Umicore extracts germanium from a wide range of refining and recycling feeds. The main objectives of this study were to quantify the potential environmental impacts of the production of germanium from production scraps from the photovoltaic industry and to compare them with the potential impacts of the primary production of germanium from coal. The data related to the secondary production are Umicore-specific data. Environmental impact scores have been calculated for the impact categories recommended by the International reference life cycle data system. The comparison of the primary and secondary production highlights the benefit linked to the recycling of metals.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12
Fig. 13

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. European Commission, Report on Critical Raw Materials for the EU: Critical Raw Materials Profiles (Brussels, Belgium: European Commission, 2014).

  2. Öko-Institut e.V. (M. Buchert, D. Schüler, and D. Bleher), Sustainable Innovation and Technology Transfer Industrial Sector Studies: Critical Metals for Future Sustainable Technologies and their Recycling Potential, (Washington, DC: United Nations Environment Programme, 2009), p. 70, http://www.unep.fr/shared/publications/pdf/DTIx1202xPA-Critical%20Metals%20and%20their%20Recycling%20Potential.pdf.

  3. J. Emsley, Nature’s Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements, new edition (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), pp. 197–201.

  4. J. Scoyer, H. Guislain, and H.U. Wolf, Germanium and Germanium Compounds, Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (New York: Wiley-VCH, 2000).

    Google Scholar 

  5. Umicore, Market Analysis of 2013 Germanium Supply, unpublished research, 2014.

  6. F. Melcher and P. Buchholz, Critical Metals Handbook, 1st ed., ed. Gus Gunn (New York: Wiley, 2014), p. 194.

  7. J. Speirs, B. Gross, R. Gross, and Y. Houari, Energy Materials Availability Handbook: Germanium Fact Sheet (London: U.K. Energy Research Centre, 2012), pp. 12–14.

    Google Scholar 

  8. T. Stadnichenko, K.J. Murata, P. Zubovic, and E.L. Hufschmidt, Concentration of Germanium in the Ash of American Coals, A Progress Report, (Geological Survey Circular 272 Washington, DC: U.S. Geological Survey, 1953).

  9. X. Dong, C. Yiwei, G. Hua, L. Han-qiang, X. Ying-dong, Z. Wen-fu, and S. Yu-cai, Appl. Mech. Mater. 423–426, 565 (2013).

    Google Scholar 

  10. R.R. Moskalyk, Miner. Eng. 17, 393 (2004).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. D.E. Guberman, Minerals Yearbook 2011: Germanium (Washington, DC: U.S. Geological Survey, 2012).

    Google Scholar 

  12. SolarPlaza, Top 10 World’s Most Efficient Solar PV Mono-Crystalline Cells, http://www.solarplaza.com/top10-monocrystalline-cell-efficiency/.

  13. ISO 14040 Environmental Management—Life Cycle Assessment—Principles and Framework, 2006.

  14. ISO 14044, Environmental Management—Life Cycle Assessment—Requirements and Guidelines, 2006.

  15. Ecoinvent Centre, Ecoinvent Data v2.2 (Dübendorf, Switzerland: Swiss Centre for Life Cycle Inventories, 2010).

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge financial support of the Institute for the Promotion of Innovation through Science and Technology in Flanders (IWT-Vlaanderen). The authors would like to thank the CIRAIG for the comments and advice provided via the critical review of the LCA work.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Umicore, Groupe Research and Development, Watertorenstraat, 31, 2250, Olen, Belgium

    Benedicte Robertz

  2. Umicore, Electro Optics Materials, Watertorenstraat, 31, 2250, Olen, Belgium

    Jensen Verhelle & Maarten Schurmans

Authors
  1. Benedicte Robertz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jensen Verhelle
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Maarten Schurmans
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Maarten Schurmans.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Robertz, B., Verhelle, J. & Schurmans, M. The Primary and Secondary Production of Germanium: A Life-Cycle Assessment of Different Process Alternatives. JOM 67, 412–424 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-014-1267-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-014-1267-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation