Abstract
For open car park structures, adopting a performance-based structural fire design is often justified and allowed because the fire does not reach flashover. However, this design approach requires an accurate assessment of temperatures in structural members exposed to car fires. This paper describes a numerical study on the thermal exposure on steel framing members in open car park fires. Steel temperatures are computed by the coupling of computational fluid dynamics and finite element modeling, and by analytical models from the Eurocodes. In addition, the influence of galvanization on the steel temperature evolution is assessed. Results show that temperatures in unprotected beams and columns are influenced by the section geometry, car fire scenario, modeling approach, and use of galvanization. Galvanization slightly delays and reduces peak temperature. Regarding the different models, CFD-FEM (CFD: computational fluid dynamics, FEM: finite-element method) coupled models predict lower temperatures than the Hasemi model, because the latter conservatively assumes that the fire flame continuously touches the ceiling. Further, the Hasemi model cannot account for the effect of reduced emissivity from galvanization on the absorbed heat flux. Detailed temperature distributions obtained in the steel members can be used to complete efficient structural fire designs based on the member sections, structure layout, and use of galvanization.
Article PDF
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
References
Zhao B, Roosefid M. Guide for Verification of the Fire Behavior of Largely Ventilated Car Parks with Metal Superstructure. CTICM document (SRI-11/110h-MR-BZ/NB), 2014 (in French)
Mangs J, Keski-Rahkonen O. Characterization of the fire behaviour of a burning passenger car. Part I: Car fire experiments. Fire Safety Journal, 1994, 23(1): 17–35
Macneil D D, Lougheed G, Lam C, Carbonneau G, Kroeker R, Edwards D, Tompkins J, Lalime G. Electric vehicle fire testing. In: 8th EVS-GTR Meeting. Washington, D.C.: National Research Council Canada, 2015
Zhao B, Kruppa J. Structural behaviour of an open car park under real fire scenarios. Fire and Materials, 2004, 28(24): 269–280
Joyeux D. Natural Fires in Closed Car Parks—Car Fire Tests. INC-96/294d-DJ/NB, 1997
Heskestad G. Engineering relations for fire plumes. Fire Safety Journal, 1984, 7(1): 25–32
Pchelintsev A, Hasemi Y, Wakarnatsu T, Yokobayashi Y. Experimental and numerical study on the behaviour of a steel beam under ceiling exposed to a localized fire. In: Fire Safety Science-Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium. Melbourne: IAFSS, 1997
Tondini N, Thauvoye C, Hanus F, Vassart O. Development of an analytical model to predict the radiative heat flux to a vertical element due to a localised fire. Fire Safety Journal, 2019, 105: 227–243
McGrattan K, Hostikka S, McDermott R, Floyd J, Weinschenk C, Overholt K. Fire Dynamics Simulator User’S Guide. Gaithersburg: NIST Special Publication, 2013
Alos-Moya J, Paya-Zaforteza I, Hospitaler A, Loma-Ossorio E. Valencia bridge fire tests: Validation of simplified and advanced numerical approaches to model bridge fire scenarios. Advances in Engineering Software, 2019, 128: 55–68
Alos-Moya J, Paya-Zaforteza I, Garlock M E M, Loma-Ossorio E, Schiffner D, Hospitaler A. Analysis of a bridge failure due to fire using computational fluid dynamics and finite element models. Engineering Structures, 2014, 68: 96–110
Guo Q, Root K J, Carlton A, Quiel S E, Naito C J. Framework for rapid prediction of fire-induced heat flux on concrete tunnel liners with curved ceilings. Fire Safety Journal, 2019, 109: 102866
Quiel S E, Yokoyama T, Bregman L S, Mueller K A, Marjanishvili S M. A streamlined framework for calculating the response of steel-supported bridges to open-air tanker truck fires. Fire Safety Journal, 2015, 73: 63–75
Hua N, Tessari A, Elhami-Khorasani N. Quantifying Uncertainties in the Temperature—Time Evolution of Railway Tunnel Fires. New York: Springer US, 2021
Yan X, Gernay T. Numerical modeling of localized fire exposures on structures using FDS-FEM and simple models. Engineering Structures, 2021, 246: 112997
Khan A A, Nan Z, Jiang L, Gupta V, Chen S, Khan M A, Hidalgo J, Usmani A. Model characterisation of localised burning impact from localised fire tests to travelling fire scenarios. Journal of Building Engineering, 2022, 54: 104601
Hidalgo J P, Goode T, Gupta V, Cowlard A, Abecassis-Empis C, Maclean J, Bartlett A I, Maluk C, Montalvá J M, Osorio A F, Torero J L. The Malveira fire test: Full-scale demonstration of fire modes in open-plan compartments. Fire Safety Journal, 2019, 108: 102827
Nadjai A, Naveed A, Charlier M, Vassart O, Welsh S, Glorieux A, Sjostrom J. Large scale fire test: The development of a travelling fire in open ventilation conditions and its influence on the surrounding steel structure. Fire Safety Journal, 2022, 130: 103575
Alam N, Nadjai A, Charlier M, Vassart O, Welch S, Sjöström J, Dai X. Large scale travelling fire tests with open ventilation conditions and their effect on the surrounding steel structure—The second fire test. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 2022, 188: 107032
Fettah B. Fire Analysis of car park building structures. Thesis for the Master’s Degree. Bragança: Polytechnic Institute of Bragança, 2016
Fang C, Izzuddin B A, Obiala R, Elghazouli A Y, Nethercot D A. Robustness of multi-storey car parks under vehicle fire. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 2012, 75: 72–84
Sommavilla M, Tondini N. Fire performance of a steel open car park in the light of the recent development of the localised fire model “LOCAFI”. In: The 11th International Conference on Structures in Fire. Brisbane: The University of Queensland, 2020
Zhang X G, Guo Y C, Chan C K, Lin W Y. Numerical simulations on fire spread and smoke movement in an underground car park. Building and Environment, 2007, 42(10): 3466–3475
Annerel E, Taerwe L, Merci B, Jansen D, Bamonte P, Felicetti R. Thermo-mechanical analysis of an underground car park structure exposed to fire. Fire Safety Journal, 2013, 57: 96–106
Tondini N, Morbioli A, Vassart O, Lechêne S, Franssen J M. An integrated modelling strategy between a CFD and an FE software: Methodology and application to compartment fires. Journal of Structural Fire Engineering, 2016, 7(3): 217–233
ECCS. Fire Safety in Open Car Parks: Modern Fire Engineering. European Convention for Constructional Steelwork, 1993
EN 1993-1-2. Eurocode 3: Design oF Steel Structures—Part 1–2: General Rules—Structural Fire Design. Brussels: European Committee for Standardization, 2005
Joyeux D, Kruppa J, Cajot L G, Schleich J B, van de Leur P, Twilt L. Demonstration of Real Fire Tests in Car Parks and High Buildings. EUR 20466. 2002
Cwiklinski C. Open Car Parks—Expert Opinion on Fire Scenarios Final report. INERIS DRA-CCw/MCh-2001-Cgr22984. 2001 (in French)
Collier P C R. Car parks—Fires involving Modern Cars and Stacking Systems. New Zealand, BRANZ Study Report 255. 2011
Cadorin J F, Franssen J M. A tool to design steel elements submitted to compartment fires—OZone V2. Part 1: pre-and post-flashover compartment fire model. Fire Safety Journal, 2003, 38(5): 395–427
EN 1991-1-2. Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures—Part 1–2: General Actions—Actions on Structures Exposed to Fire. Brussels: European Committee for Standardization, 2002
Wickström U, Duthinh D, McGrattan K. Adiabatic surface temperature for calculating heat transfer to fire exposed structures. In: Proceedings of the Eleventh International Interflam Conference. London: Interscience Communications, 2007
Wickström U, Hunt S, Lattimer B, Barnett J, Beyler C. Technical comment—Ten fundamental principles on defining and expressing thermal exposure as boundary conditions in fire safety engineering. Fire and Materials, 2018, 42(8): 985–988
Charlier M, Glorieux A, Dai X, Alam N, Welch S, Anderson J, Vassart O, Nadjai A. Travelling fire experiments in steel-framed structure: Numerical investigations with CFD and FEM. Journal of Structural Fire Engineering, 2021, 12(3): 309–327
Deckers X, Haga S, Tilley N, Merci B. Smoke control in case of fire in a large car park: CFD simulations of full-scale configurations. Fire Safety Journal, 2013, 57: 22–34
Franssen J M, Gernay T. Modeling structures in fire with SAFIR®: theoretical background and capabilities. Journal of Structural Fire Engineering, 2017, 8(3): 300–323
Gernay T, Kotsovinos P. Advanced analysis. In: International Handbook of Structural Fire Engineering. Cham: Springer, 2021, 413–467
Brasseur C, Zaharia M, Obiala R, Franssen R, Hanus J M, Zhao F, Pintea B, Sanghoon D, Vassart H, Nadjai O, Scifo A, Thauvoye A. Temperature Assessment of a Vertical Steel Member Subjected to Localised Fire (LOCAFI). EUR 28577. 2017
Yan X, Gernay T. Structural fire design of load-bearing cold-formed steel assemblies from a prototype metal building. Structures, 2022, 41: 1266–1277
Gernay T, Khorasani N E. Recommendations for performance-based fire design of composite steel buildings using computational analysis. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 2020, 166: 105906
ASTM E119-18c. Standard Test Methods for Fire Tests of Building Construction and Materials. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM, 2018
Vassart O, Bailey C G, Hawes M, Nadjai A, Simms W I, Zhao B, Gernay T, Franssen J M. Large-scale fire test of unprotected cellular beam acting in membrane action. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Structures and Buildings, 2012, 165(7): 327–334
Acknowledgements
This research was based in part upon work supported by ArcelorMittal Global R&D. This support is gratefully acknowledged.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests. Under a license agreement between Gesval S.A. and the Johns Hopkins University, Dr. Gernay and the Johns Hopkins University are entitled to royalty distributions related to the technology SAFIR described in the study discussed in this publication. This arrangement has been reviewed and approved by the Johns Hopkins University in accordance with its conflict of interest policies.
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
About this article
Cite this article
Yan, X., Charlier, M. & Gernay, T. Thermal response of steel framing members in open car park fires. Front. Struct. Civ. Eng. 16, 1071–1088 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11709-022-0879-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11709-022-0879-0