Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Effects of gaps on regeneration of woody plants: a meta-analysis

  • Review Article
  • Published:
Journal of Forestry Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Forest gaps, openings in the canopy caused by death of one or more trees, have a profound effect on forest regeneration and drive the forest growth cycle. It is therefore necessary to understand the effects of forest gaps on regeneration for modern forest management. In order to provide a quantitative assessment of the effects of forest gaps on regeneration of woody plants, we conducted this review of gap effects on woody plant regeneration on the basis of 527 observations from 42 individual papers, and reported the results of these data in a meta-analysis. Overall, densities of regenerated woody plants were significantly greater (359%) in forest gaps than on the closed-canopy forest floor. The regeneration density in gaps of plantation forests was significantly greater (P < 0.05) than that of natural forest because the regeneration in gaps of plantation forests was improved by both gap effects and experimental measures. Similarly, in comparison to natural gaps, regeneration was better enhanced in artificial gaps. Regeneration density exhibited a significantly positive correlation with gap size, but a negative correlation with gap age because the gap size decreased with increasing gap age. Shade tolerance of woody plants affected regeneration density in gaps and understory. Average regeneration density of shade-tolerant species exhibited a significantly positive response to gaps but densities remained lower in total than those of intermediate and shade-intolerant species. Gap effects on regeneration decreased in response to increasing temperature and precipitation because of the limiting effects of lower temperature and moisture on woody plant regeneration. In summary, forest gaps enhance woody plant regeneration, and the effects of gaps varied by forest type, gap characteristics, environmental factors and plant traits. The results of this meta-analysis are useful for better understanding the effects and roles of gaps on forest regeneration and forest management.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Almquist BE, Jack SB, Messina MG. 2002. Variation of the treefall gap regime in a bottomland hardwood forest: relationships with microtopography. Forest Ecology and Management, 157: 155–163.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arevalo JR, Fernandez-Palacios JM. 2007. Treefall gaps and regeneration composition in the laurel forest of Anaga (Tenerife): a matter of size? Plant Ecology, 188: 133–143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bai E, Li S, Xu W, Li W, Dai W, Jiang P. 2013. A meta-analysis of experimental warming effects on terrestrial nitrogen pools and dynamics. New Phytologist. 199: 441–451.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bolton NW, D’Amato AW. 2011. Regeneration responses to gap size and coarse woody debris within natural disturbance-based silvicultural systems in northeastern Minnesota, USA. Forest Ecology and Management, 262: 1215–1222.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brokaw NV. 1982. The definition of treefall gap and its effect on measures of forest dynamics. Biotropica, 14: 158–160.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown N. 1996. A gradient of seedling growth from the centre of a tropical rain forest canopy gap. Forest Ecology and Management, 82: 239–244.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burnham KM, Lee TD. 2010. Canopy gaps facilitate establishment, growth, and reproduction of invasive Frangula alnus in a Tsuga canadensis dominated forest. Biological Invasions, 12: 1509–1520.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clarke PJ. 2004. Effects of experimental canopy gaps on mangrove recruitment: lack of habitat partitioning may explain stand dominance. Journal of Ecology, 92: 203–213.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clinton BD, Baker CR. 2000. Catastrophic windthrow in the southern Appalachians: characteristics of pits and mounds and initial vegetation responses. Forest Ecology and Management, 126: 51–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Lima RAF, de Moura LC. 2008. Gap disturbance regime and composition in the Atlantic Montane Rain Forest: the influence of topography. Plant Ecology, 197: 239–253.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Denslow JS. 1980. Gap partitioning among tropical rainforest trees. Biotropica, 12: 47–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dickinson MB, Whigham DF, Hermann SM. 2000. Tree regeneration in felling and natural treefall disturbances in a semideciduous tropical forest in Mexico. Forest Ecology and Management, 134: 137–151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dobrowolska D. 2006. Oak natural regeneration and conversion processes in mixed Scots pine stands. Forestry, 79: 503–513.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Drobyshev IV. 1999. Regeneration of Norway spruce in canopy gaps in Sphagnum-Myrtillus old-growth forests. Forest Ecology and Management, 115: 71–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duguid MC, Ashton MS. 2013. A meta-analysis of the effect of forest management for timber on understory plant species diversity in temperate forests. Forest Ecology and Management, 303: 81–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elias RB, Dias E. 2009. Gap dynamics and regeneration strategies in Juniperus-Laurus forests of the Azores Islands. Plant Ecology, 200: 179–189.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fahey RT, Lorimer CG. 2013. Restoring a midtolerant pine species as a component of late-successional forests: Results of gap-based planting trials. Forest Ecology and Management, 292: 139–149.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fahey RT, Puettmann KJ. 2008. Patterns in spatial extent of gap influence on understory plant communities. Forest Ecology and Management, 255: 2801–2810.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fajardo A, de Graaf R. 2004. Tree dynamics in canopy gaps in old-growth forests of Nothofagus pumilio in Southern Chile. Plant Ecology, 173: 95–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Felton A, Felton AM, Wood J, Lindenmayer DB. 2006. Vegetation structure, phenology, and regeneration in the natural and anthropogenic tree-fall gaps of a reduced-impact logged subtropical Bolivian forest. Forest Ecology and Management, 235: 186–193.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Galhidy L, Mihok B, Hagyo A, Rajkai K, Standovar T. 2006. Effects of gap size and associated changes in light and soil moisture on the understorey vegetation of a Hungarian beech forest. Plant Ecology, 183: 133–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garbarino M, Mondino EB, Lingua E, Nagel TA, Dukic V, Govedar Z, Motta R. 2012. Gap disturbances and regeneration patterns in a Bosnian old-growth forest: a multispectral remote sensing and ground-based approach. Annals of Forest Science, 69: 617–625.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gravel D, Canham CD, Beaudet M, Messier C. 2010. Shade tolerance, canopy gaps and mechanisims of coexistence of forest trees. Oikos, 119: 475–484.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gurevitch J, Hedges LV. 1999. Statistical issues in ecological meta-analyses. Ecology, 80: 1142–1149.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • He ZS, Liu JF, Wu CT, Zheng SQ, Hong W, Su SJ, Wu CZ. 2012. Effects of forest gaps on some microclimate variables in Castanopsis kawakamii natural forest. Journal of Mountain Science, 9: 706–714.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hedges LV, Gurevitch J, Curtis PS. 1999. The meta-analysis of response ratios in experimental ecology. Ecology, 80: 1150–1156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holladay C-A, Kwit C, Collins B. 2006. Woody regeneration in and around aging southern bottomland hardwood forest gaps: effects of herbivory and gap size. Forest Ecology and Management, 223: 218–225.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hutchinson TF, Long RP, Rebbeck J, Sutherland EK, Yaussy DA. 2012. Repeated prescribed fires alter gap-phase regeneration in mixed-oak forests. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 42: 303–314.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huth F, Wagner S. 2006. Gap structure and establishment of Silver birch regeneration (Betula pendula Roth.) in Norway spruce stands (Picea abies L. Karst.). Forest Ecology and Management, 229: 314–324.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ibanez I, McCarthy-Neumann S. 2014. Integrated assessment of the direct and indirect effects of resource gradients on tree species recruitment. Ecology, 95: 364–375.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson DW, Curtis PS. 2001. Effects of forest management on soil C and N storage: meta analysis. Forest Ecology and Management, 140: 227–238.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kamiyama C, Oikawa S, Kubo T, Hikosaka K. 2010. Light interception in species with different functional groups coexisting in moorland plant communities. Oecologia, 164: 591–599.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kern CC, Reich PB, Montgomery RA, Strong TF. 2012. Do deer and shrubs override canopy gap size effects on growth and survival of yellow birch, northern red oak, eastern white pine, and eastern hemlock seedlings? Forest Ecology and Management, 267: 134–143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kuuluvainen T, Juntunen P. 1998. Seedling establishment in relation to microhabitat variation in a windthrow gap in a boreal Pinus sylvestris forest. Journal of Vegetation Science, 9: 551–562.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lawson SS, Michler CH. 2014. Afforestation, restoration and regeneration — Not all trees are created equal. Journal of Forestry Research, 25(1): 3–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lara-Gonzalez R, Sanchez-Velasquez LR, Corral-Aguirre J. 2009. Regeneration of Abies religiosa in canopy gaps versus understory, Cofre de Perote National Park, Mexico. Agrociencia, 43: 739–747.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee CS, Kim JH, Yi H, You YH. 2004. Seedling establishment and regeneration of Korean red pine (Pinus densiflora S. et Z.) forests in Korea in relation to soil moisture. Forest Ecology and Management, 199: 423–432.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leithead M, Silva LCR, Anand M. 2012. Recruitment patterns and northward tree migration through gap dynamics in an old-growth white pine forest in northern Ontario. Plant Ecology, 213: 1699–1714.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lin D, Xia J, Wan S. 2010. Climate warming and biomass accumulation of terrestrial plants: a meta-analysis. New Phytologist, 1188: 187–198.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Long JN. 2009. Emulating natural disturbance regimes as a basis for forest management: A North American view. Forest Ecology and Management, 257: 1868–1873.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lu ZH, Wu G, Ma X, Bai GX. 2002. Current situation of Chinese forestry tactics and strategy of sustainable development. Journal of Forestry Research, 13: 319–322.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Madsen P, Hahn K. 2008. Natural regeneration in a beech-dominated forest managed by close-to-nature principles-a gap cutting based experiment. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 38: 1716–1729.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mallik AU, Kreutzweiser DP, Spalvieri CM. 2014. Forest regeneration in gaps seven years after partial harvesting in riparian buffers of boreal mixedwood streams. Forest Ecology and Management, 312: 117–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marthews TR, Burslem DF, Phillips RT, Mullins CE. 2008. Modelling direct radiation and canopy gap regimes in tropical forests. Biotropica, 40: 676–685.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mason W. 2003. Continuous cover forestry: developing a close-to-nature forest management in conifer plantations in upland Britain. Scottish Forestry, 57: 141–150.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mason W, Zhu J. 2014. Silviculture of planted forests managed for multi-functional objectives: lessons from Chinese and British experiences. In: T. Fenning (ed), Challenges and Opportunities for the World’s Forests in the 21st Century. New York: Springer, pp. 37–54.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Mizunaga H. 2007. Do finer gap mosaics provide a wider niche for Quercus gilva in young Japanese cedar plantations than coarser mosaics? Simulation of spatial heterogeneity of light availability and photosynthetic potential. Canadian Journal of Forest Research-Revue Canadienne De Recherche Forestiere, 37: 1545–1553.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muscolo A, Sidari M, Mercurio R. 2007. Influence of gap size on organic matter decomposition, microbial biomass and nutrient cycle in Calabrian pine (Pinus laricio, Poiret) stands. Forest Ecology and Management, 242: 412–418.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nagel TA, Svoboda M, Rugani T, Diaci J. 2010. Gap regeneration and replacement patterns in an old-growth Fagus-Abies forest of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Plant Ecology, 208: 307–318.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nuske RS, Sprauer S, Saborowski J. 2009. Adapting the pair-correlation function for analysing the spatial distribution of canopy gaps. Forest Ecology and Management, 259: 107–116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Page LM, Cameron AD. 2006. Regeneration dynamics of Sitka spruce in artificially created forest gaps. Forest Ecology and Management, 221: 260–266.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paquette A, Bouchard A, Cogliastro A. 2006. Survival and growth of under-planted trees: a meta-analysis across four biomes. Ecological Applications, 16: 1575–1589.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Poorter L. 2009. Leaf traits show different relationships with shade tolerance in moist versus dry tropical forests. New Phytologist, 181: 890–900.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Richards JD, Hart JL. 2011. Canopy gap dynamics and development patterns in secondary Quercus stands on the Cumberland Plateau, Alabama, USA. Forest Ecology and Management, 262: 2229–2239.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg MS, Adams DC, Gurevitch J. 2000. MetaWin: statistical software for meta-analysis. Sinauer Associates Sunderland, Massachusetts, USA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Runkle JR. 1982. Patterns of disturbance in some old-growth mesic forests of eastern North America. Ecology, 63: 1533–1546.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sakai A, Ohsawa M. 1993. Vegetation pattern and microtopography on a landslide scar of Mt Kiyosumi, central Japan. Ecological Research, 8: 47–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schliemann SA, Bockheim JG. 2011. Methods for studying treefall gaps: a review. Forest Ecology and Management, 261: 1143–1151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schnitzer SA, Parren MP, Bongers F. 2004. Recruitment of lianas into logging gaps and the effects of pre-harvest climber cutting in a lowland forest in Cameroon. Forest Ecology and Management, 190: 87–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schulze M. 2008. Technical and financial analysis of enrichment planting in logging gaps as a potential component of forest management in the eastern Amazon. Forest Ecology and Management, 255: 866–879.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Toledo-Aceves T, Swaine MD. 2007. Effect of three species of climber on the performance of Ceiba pentandra seedlings in gaps in a tropical forest in Ghana. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 23: 45–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van der Meer PJ, Sterck FJ, Bongers F. 1998. Tree seedling performance in canopy gaps in a tropical rain forest at Nouragues, French Guiana. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 14: 119–137.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang GL, Liu F. 2011. The influence of gap creation on the regeneration of Pinus tabuliformis planted forest and its role in the near-natural cultivation strategy for planted forest management. Forest Ecology and Management, 262: 413–423.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watt AS. 1947. Pattern and process in the plant community. Journal of Ecology, 35: 1–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Webster CR, Lorimer CG. 2005. Minimum opening sizes for canopy recruitment of midtolerant tree species: a retrospective approach. Ecological Applications, 15: 1245–1262.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whitmore T. 1989. Canopy gaps and the two major groups of forest trees. Ecology, 70: 536–538.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yamamoto SI. 1992. The gap theory in forest dynamics. Botanical Magazine-Tokyo, 105: 375–383.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yan QL, Zhu JJ, Zhang JP, Yu LZ, Hu ZB. 2010. Spatial distribution pattern of soil seed bank in canopy gaps of various sizes in temperate secondary forests, Northeast China. Plant and Soil, 329: 469–480.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • York RA, Battles JJ, Heald RC. 2003. Edge effects in mixed conifer group selection openings: tree height response to resource gradients. Forest Ecology and Management, 179: 107–121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang C, Zou CJ, Peltola H, Wang KY, Xu WD. 2013. The effects of gap size and age on natural regeneration of Picea mongolica in the semi-arid region of Northern China. New Forests, 44: 297–310.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhu JJ, Li XF, Liu ZG, Cao W, Gonda Y, Matsuzaki T. 2006. Factors affecting the snow and wind induced damage of a montane secondary forest in northeastern China. Silva Fennica, 40: 37–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhu JJ, Matsuzaki T, Lee FQ, Gonda Y. 2003. Effect of gap size created by thinning on seedling emergency, survival and establishment in a coastal pine forest. Forest Ecology and Management, 182: 339–354.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. State Key Laboratory of Forest and Soil Ecology, Qingyuan Experimental Station of Forest Ecology, Institute of Applied Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenyang, 110016, China

    Jiaojun Zhu, Deliang Lu & Weidong Zhang

  2. University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China

    Deliang Lu

Authors
  1. Jiaojun Zhu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Deliang Lu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Weidong Zhang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jiaojun Zhu.

Additional information

Project funding: This research was supported by grants from the National Basic Research Program of China (973 Program) (2012CB416906) and National Nature Scientific Foundation of China (31330016).

Electronic supplementary material

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Zhu, J., Lu, D. & Zhang, W. Effects of gaps on regeneration of woody plants: a meta-analysis. Journal of Forestry Research 25, 501–510 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11676-014-0489-3

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11676-014-0489-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation