The most pressing challenges for the sustainable provision of FES
After the prioritization process, 15 challenges were selected, three per thematic area, based on their urgency and impact (Table 1).
Table 1 Definition of the final selected challenges for each sustainability area Figure 2 displays the prioritization of these 15 most important challenges based on the expert group perceptions of their urgency and impact. Most of the prioritized challenges were classified as being urgent and having a high impact. The increasing areal expansion, frequency, and impacts of pests and diseases (Ch. 2), the tensions and mismatching expectations among the roles of public forests (Ch. 12), and the homogenization of perceptions of forest values by society (Ch. 13) were the challenges perceived by the experts as those that should be most immediately tackled. The resolution of these challenges would have the maximum potential to contribute to the sustainable supply of multiple FES in Europe. Challenges referring to the fragmentation of forest habitats (Ch. 3), lack of efficient economic instruments (Ch. 9), and lack of coordination among policy sectors (Ch. 10) were considered as having a medium impact due to the fact that solving these challenges would contribute to the sustainable supply of multiple FES although over a longer period of time. The increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events (Ch.1) was considered as the least urgent challenge, meaning that it would be occurring during a longer period, although having the biggest impact.
The most suitable solutions to improve the sustainable provision of FES
To address the 15 challenges, 24 solutions were identified by the team of experts (see S5 for a detailed description of all the solutions). The suitability of each solution was subsequently assessed and ranked based on the following six criteria: social–ecological effectiveness, economic efficiency, readiness, feasibility, and transferability potential (Box 1). Table 2 shows the prioritized challenges per thematic area with the respective solutions and the final ranking (More detailed results on these calculations in S6). The social–ecological effectiveness, respecting the diverse contexts, and the transferability potential were the strongest traits shared by the proposed solutions. In contrast, the readiness, or the short-term implementation potential and the feasibility, understood as the potential for its successful implementation, were generally the weakest traits. After summing up the rankings of all the different criteria for all solutions, the top ten solutions were obtained. These 10 solutions are presented in detail in the next section.
Table 2 Solutions to foster sustainable FES provision in European forests The top ten solutions for the sustainable provision of FES in Europe
Top 1. Promote climate-smart forestry management
Sustainability Area: Environment; Challenge 1—Increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events
Climate-smart forestry is a targeted approach to manage forests in response to climate change (Bowditch et al. 2020). It aims to increase the climate regulation benefits from forests and the forest sector, in a way that creates synergies addressing other societal needs related to forests while increases forest resilience. It is a large-scale strategy, which includes three main lines of action: the enhancement of natural regeneration and avoidance of deforestation; active forest management; and adaptive forest management to build resilient forests (Nabuurs et al. 2018; Verkerk et al. 2020). For example, a recent analysis along a climate gradient across Europe showed that mixed forest, particularly those forest mixing conifer and broadleaved stands, are more resilient and resistant to drought events than monospecific forests (Pardos et al. 2021). Here, forest resilience refers to the maintenance of regimes and the adaptive capacity of forests as a coupled human–natural system in the face of drivers of change (Nikinmaa et al. 2020). As such, climate-smart forestry strives beyond storing carbon to mitigate climate change and generate synergies with multiple FES and biodiversity. The implementation of this solution needs to carefully consider the different regional contexts in Europe to identify the most cost-effective management options. It would also require sustained commitment as the benefits from this solution would only emerge in a mid-long term.
Top 2. Mainstream FES-oriented management in a threefold strategy: education, awareness raising, and networking
Sustainability Area: Management; Challenge 4—Narrow focus and normative mindset on forest management
This solution invites broadening the often-narrow perspective of forest management focused on the timber and biomass production of highly productive stands (Jönsson and Snäll 2020), with the help of education and information strategies. In particular, this could be done by diversifying education at the administration and university level (Nair 2004), fostering knowledge transfer to forest operators (Perera et al. 2006), starting and reinforcing social campaigns to make visible the multiple services of forest, and developing and enabling long-lasting cross-sectorial networks (Guerrero and Hansen 2021). Although this solution requires long-term commitment and significant attitudinal change within and beyond the forestry sector (shifting management goals, seeking long-term instead of short-term benefits, or changing contractual arrangements) before its effects become apparent, this solution has the potential to largely generate synergistic and long-lasting effects over forest management in Europe. To tackle complex challenges and developing opportunities for innovation at EU level, collaboration can be enhanced through existing European Innovations Partnership (EIP) operational groups on forest and EU projects through multi-actor approaches. Moreover, in the light of the new EU CAP, Agricultural Knowledge, and Innovation Systems (AKIS) are key to support more intensely the sharing of knowledge and innovation.
Top 3. Foster investments into FES-oriented forest management to increase resilience (prevention and adaptation measures) towards natural hazards.
Sustainability Area: Economy; Challenge 7—Insufficient financial support to changing conditions
Investing in increasing forest resilience (Nikinmaa et al. 2020) is key for ensuring the prevention of and adaptation to natural hazards and ensuring the sustainable provision of FES (Keenan 2015; Lecina‐Diaz et al. 2021). A first step would be to assess and correct redundancies and ambiguities of forest-related investments. Then, local to regional forestry and nature conservation administrations should oversee the articulation and implementation of those investments. This should be implemented and monitored in a short–medium term to ensure that each forest-related investment fosters sustainable solutions with regard to multiple forest functions. Every economic support needs to be continuous and outcome-oriented by designing policies that consider spatial targeting to FES density, threats and cost levels, payment differentiation, and improved conditionality (Wunder et al. 2020). This solution requires an integrated forest policy that addresses various system dimensions in terms of policy sectors and administrative levels, including both local and landscape-level land uses with indicators oriented towards minimizing socio-ecological damages and losses (Moreira et al. 2020).
Top 4. Support economic instruments and business models promoting regulating and cultural FES with consistent policies
Sustainability Area: Economy; Challenge 8—Economic power asymmetries in the forestry sector
Effective economic instruments as well as business models that contribute to the sustainable provision of FES (particularly for regulating and cultural FES) should be consistently supported by cross-scale European and national policies similar to those in place for timber and biomass production (Wunder et al. 2019). This could be achieved through, on the one hand, nested multi-scale policies (Ostrom 1990) and, on the other hand, a strategy of advertising and making available successful business models (along with the key features leading to their success). The specific purpose would be to stimulate their replication elsewhere. In relation to incentive-based and result-based payments for ecosystem services (PES) schemes, it is important to target forest owners of those forest areas that show a) high levels of FES supply (e.g., high carbon stocks/ha or endemic biodiversity hotspots), and b) areas with high potential risks (e.g., high threat of deforestation and degradation). This strategy would focus PES in areas where they can realistically make a difference (Börner et al. 2020; Wunder et al. 2020).
Top 5. Engage the community in participatory decision-making in management approaches in public forests, while embracing innovations towards efficient use of forest resources.
Sustainability Area: Governance; Challenge 12—Tensions and mismatching expectations about the role of public forests
This solution strategy promotes participatory forest management to overcome outdated management approaches that do not respond to current societal demands and larger social–ecological challenges (such as biodiversity loss or climate change). These strategies are often coupled with a philosophy of embracing innovations towards improved forest management for the provision of FES bundles, especially for regulating and cultural FES, for the promotion of ecological and societal transformation, and for the sustainable use of public goods. Public forests would be used as niches of innovation (Geels 2005) of, for example, public–private partnerships or novel actor alliances to improve the provision of regulating and cultural FES or enhance non-wood forest product (NWFP) value chains. Public forests would act as ‘incubation rooms’ for radical novelties, providing locations for learning, and spaces to build social networks which support innovation. Initiatives and innovations would be carefully addressed so that public resources do not end up creating exclusively private benefits, but rather improving local economies with a share of benefits re-invested in improved forest management.
Top 6. Implement practices for (re)connecting people with forests
Sustainability Area: Socio-culture; Challenge 13—Homogenization of perceptions of forest values by society
Understanding forests as a mean to solve economic problems is a reductionist standpoint. In the pursuit of sustainable forest management, increased identification and inclusion of cultural bonds is crucial. To achieve a deeper understanding of the mutual constitution of the society–forest relation, it is also necessary to recognize the multi-layered spectrum of forests’ contributions (Ritter and Dauksta 2013). Mainstreaming forest models that (re)connect people and forests (like forest kindergartens and forest schools) is crucial. Increasingly, studies show the perceived linkages of people to spiritual and cultural values in forests that are not necessarily related to livelihoods (Rodríguez-Morales et al. 2020; Torralba et al. 2020). In parallel, there is a need to strengthen the social and cultural sciences in FES assessments with a clearer representation of non-material values (Jacobs et al. 2016) and more-than-human thinking (Whatmore 2006).
Top 7. Promote new forms of communication and interaction between society and FES providers with a focus on public goods
Sustainability Area: Socio-culture; Challenge 14—Conflicts between FES providers and beneficiaries
When forests provide more regulating or cultural services than provisioning services, governance mechanisms are key to maintaining the supply of FES, especially in privately owned forests. To overcome the lack of markets to deal with public goods and services, social support is needed to finance the expenses that keep the sustainable forest management ongoing. This is especially important in situations where management is key to guarantee the provision flow of these goods and services, but where these are under high threat (e.g., wildfire risk in the Mediterranean region that increases with the lack of active forest management). European studies of public perception (Rametsteiner et al. 2009) have revealed that forestry issues are not well understood outside the forestry community and have suggested that improving communication to the general public is essential. Management goals and objectives must be identified and communicated on the short as well as long term, a wide variety of channels should be used, messages should be simple and clear, and collaboration with other organizations (agriculture, wood construction, etc.) should be enhanced. A joint effort with media professionals would lead to results that are more successful. In parallel, further research into the public perception of forests and forestry is needed to define targeted communication strategies (Fabra-Crespo and Rojas-Briales 2015).
Top 8. Improve integration of regulating forest ecosystem services in local and regional planning
Sustainability Area: Environment; Challenge 1—Increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events
This solution proposes that forest planning authorities consider to a larger extent those specific strategies that have been proven to enhance regulating services such as watershed protection, erosion prevention, or flood control, for example by promoting mixed forest stands of uneven ages (Bravo-Oviedo 2018; Felipe-Lucia et al. 2018). These should be economically supported to cover the opportunity costs needed to restructure forests. Such measures, like PES, already exist in some settings worldwide with different degrees of success (Wunder et al. 2020). The implementation of PES has been polarized between pro-market and anti-neoliberal arguments. A political–cultural reconceptualization should be achieved to attain their potential while ensuring an improved environmental governance, (Van Hecken et al. 2015). Moreover, PES implementation may encounter obstacles hampering the promotion of regulating FES and impeding the improvement of the socio-economic situation of forest-dependent communities and stakeholders. Some of these obstacles are on the social side, the lack of know how, insecure property rights, and problematic benefits distribution, on the market side, the adverse PES self-selection, inadequate administrative targeting, and enforced conditionality (Pagiola et al. 2005; Wunder et al. 2020). There is a large potential for the adaptation of these experiences to the European context.
Top 9. Coordinate strategic regional forestry stakeholders to join forces against biological and environmental threats
Sustainability Area: Environment; Challenge 2—Increasing extent, frequency and impacts of events in forest habitats
This solution proposes the regional-level implementation of coordinated actions and monitoring strategies. Risk can be assessed using analytical techniques that account for threats both spatially and temporally. Subsequently, risk-management strategies need to account more fully for multi-level responses that act to balance conflicting interests between stakeholder organizations concerned within the managed and natural environments (Mills et al. 2011). These strategies would integrate private and public forest owners together with the regional–national administration and other sectors depending on the context (e.g., nature conservation, local communities), and be backed with national support. The objective would be to share knowledge about affected areas and to join forces for specific forest interventions, increasing the readiness, monitoring capacity, and hence increasing the resilience of the system to these perturbations. An example comes from some regions in the Mediterranean, where civil society engages in wildfires extinction through volunteer groups (Górriz-Mifsud et al. 2019). Coordination strategies would need to be specifically adapted to each context. Transferability can be hampered by the heterogeneous systems of management and governance in Europe.
Top 10. Increase availability, volume, and accessibility of financial instruments to cover losses from natural hazards
Sustainability Area: Economy; Challenge 7—Insufficient financial support to changing conditions
The current natural hazards require planning and management strategies that increase forests capacity for adaptive transformation. This could provide an opportunity to steer the objectives of forest management towards a more sustainable and less production-oriented model. To be efficient, financial instruments need to be conditional upon sustainable practices that ensure a diverse FES provision, while being adapted to the different realities existing in the European forestry sector. This could be achieved by dedicating part of existing economic support (e.g., EU rural development fund, common agricultural policy, and other regional/local funds) for business model implementation to strengthen their adaptation to each specific context. For example, by refocusing on forest protection measures (Alliance Environment EEIG 2017) and encouraging the use of result-based schemes to increase the impact of the funding, while linking the business model with a positive and measurable impact on the FES provision (ECA 2020). Within such a scheme, a requirement for eligibility to receive funds would be the direct link between the business model and a positive impact FES provision (Wunder et al. 2018; Ovando et al. 2019).