Abstract
Theoretical propositions suggesting that character strengths (CSs) may have darker sides have triggered a new wave of studies, providing novel insight into the role that misuse of CSs play in psychopathology. Pioneering research in the field has addressed the challenge of constructing an instrument for measuring over/under/optimal use of CSs, and explaining the role of specific strengths’ underuse or overuse in social anxiety disorder. The present study sought to continue this line of research by examining the role of specific strengths’ underuse-overuse in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). An international sample of 970 adults completed online questionnaires derived from a CSs website. We first replicated findings that general CSs’ underuse and overuse were associated with negative outcomes, while optimal use was related to positive outcomes. Second, we found obsessive-compulsive symptoms (OCS) to be associated with the overuse of social intelligence, judgment, appreciation of beauty and excellence, fairness, perseverance, and prudence, as well as with underuse of forgiveness, self-regulation, curiosity, and creativity. Using simultaneous regression, the noted misuse of strengths, not including the overuse of perseverance and the underuse of curiosity and creativity, accounted for almost a quarter of the variance in OCS. Using discriminant analysis, the combination of the overuse of social intelligence, judgment, appreciation of beauty and excellence, fairness, and prudence, as well as the underuse of forgiveness and self-regulation, successfully re-sorted 89.3% of the participants into those that do and do not have clinical levels of OCD. These findings provide support to the role of strengths misuse in psychopathology.
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Appendices
Appendix
Optimal/Over/Under Used Strengths (OUOU)
Consider all situations and relationships in your life. For each item, indicate the extent to which each option applies to you, considering your entire life (situations, people, places, etc.), out of 100%.
For example:
How much do you eat?
Too little, not enough, remain hungry | Just enough, do not feel hungry or too full after a meal | Too much, feel too full or even sick |
10% + 70% + 20%.
You are indicating that 10% of the time/of your meals you remain hungry/do not eat enough, 70% of the time you eat just enough, and 20% of the time you eat too much.
Considering your entire life (time, people, places, etc.), to what extent to do you act according to the following descriptions?
Creativity | Underuse | I am uncreative or unimaginative, not coming up with unique ideas. |
Optimal | I am creative, conceptualizing something useful, coming up with useful ideas. | |
Overuse | I am creative without being useful; or I come up with solutions that don’t work or are unnecessary; or I overwhelm people with too many ideas. | |
Curiosity | Underuse | I quickly become disinterested in new experiences. |
Optimal | I seek out situations in which I gain new experiences without getting in my own or others’ way. | |
Overuse | I seek out new experiences regardless of the consequences to myself or others and it gets in my own or others’ way (e.g., privacy). | |
Judgment/Critical Thinking | Underuse | I make decisions quickly; the first thing that comes to my mind is the right way to go. |
Optimal | I weigh all aspects objectively in making decisions, including arguments that conflict with my convictions. | |
Overuse | I critically examine the finest details in making a decision and come across as judgmental, completely “in my head,” or indecisive. | |
Love of Learning | Underuse | I’m satisfied with what I know and the skills I have, so I do not make an effort to learn more. |
Optimal | I am motivated to acquire new levels of knowledge, or deepen my existing knowledge or skills in a significant way. | |
Overuse | I seek knowledge so much that this negatively impacts my relationships or my work/school. | |
Perspective | Underuse | I avoid giving advice to others. |
Optimal | I give advice to others by means of considering different (and relevant) perspectives and using my own experiences and knowledge. | |
Overuse | I consider too many ideas and experiences, and I have too much advice to give. | |
Bravery | Underuse | I’m very careful to avoid challenges and situations that cause me difficulty or discomfort. |
Optimal | I act on my convictions, facing threats, challenges, difficulties, and pains, despite my doubts and fears. | |
Overuse | I act on my convictions and risk injury or loss without truly weighing the pros and cons of my actions, just for the thrill of it. | |
Perseverance | Underuse | I give up when faced with obstacles or adversity, despite the possibility of reward. |
Optimal | I persist toward my goals despite obstacles, discouragements, or disappointments. | |
Overuse | I keep going with what I start, even if the costs outweigh the benefits. | |
Honesty | Underuse | I present myself in a way to make others like me; or I evade the truth. |
Optimal | I am honest with myself and with others, I present myself accurately to each person, and I take responsibility for my actions. | |
Overuse | I act exactly the way I feel, honest at any cost, impacting my relationships, my work, or myself. | |
Zest | Underuse | I am uninterested and have very little energy. |
Optimal | I feel full of energy and vital, approaching life feeling activated. | |
Overuse | I feel energetic and excited by everything, being hyperactive. | |
Love | Underuse | I’m less inclined to reciprocate warmth, love, or closeness that others share. |
Optimal | I experience close, loving relationships that are characterized by giving and receiving love, warmth, and caring. | |
Overuse | I feel close and emotional, even in relationships not characterized by mutual love and caring. | |
Kindness | Underuse | I’m helpful to others when there’s something in it for me. |
Optimal | I am helpful and empathic and do nice favors for others without expecting anything in return. | |
Overuse | I am helpful to the point of taking on others’ problems, even when my help or support isn’t really needed. | |
Social Intelligence | Underuse | I am unaware of my feelings or the feelings of others. |
Optimal | I am aware of and understand my feelings and thoughts, as well as the feelings of those around me. | |
Overuse | I analyze my thoughts and feelings too much; or I over-analyze the intentions and actions of others. | |
Teamwork | Underuse | I work alone and work well alone, rather than in a group or team. |
Optimal | I am a helpful and contributing group and team member and feel responsible for helping the team reach its goals. | |
Overuse | It is difficult for me to function without a team; or I focus on the team’s goals at the expense of my individuality and independence. | |
Fairness | Underuse | I let personal feelings bias my decisions about others. |
Optimal | I treat everyone equally and fairly, and give everyone the same chance, applying the same rules for everyone. | |
Overuse | I rigidly follow the rules, making no exceptions. | |
Leadership | Underuse | I am reluctant to take charge or organize groups. |
Optimal | I take charge and guide groups to meaningful goals and ensure good relations between group members. | |
Overuse | I take charge to be in power; or I stay in charge even at the cost of the group’s goals or well-being. | |
Forgiveness | Underuse | I am unforgiving; hold grudges; or I seek revenge. |
Optimal | I forgive others when they upset me and/or when they commit a wrongdoing. | |
Overuse | I forgive so easily that I don’t hold others responsible for hurting me or others. | |
Humility | Underuse | When I do anything, I do it well and deserve recognition and praise. |
Optimal | I see my strengths, but I am modest, not seeking to be the center of attention or to receive recognition. | |
Overuse | When I do good, I feel like I am praised for no reason; my accomplishments shouldn’t be mentioned at all. | |
Prudence | Underuse | I do what I feel like doing rather than plan and set goals. |
Optimal | I act carefully and cautiously, looking to avoid risks and plan toward distant goals. | |
Overuse | I meticulously plan my every step––words and actions. | |
Self-Regulation | Underuse | I struggle to manage my emotions, habits, or reactions to others. |
Optimal | I manage my feelings and actions and am disciplined and self-controlled. | |
Overuse | I rigidly regulate my impulses, emotions, and reactions to others. | |
Appreciation of Beauty & Excellence | Underuse | I am unmoved by the beauty around me or the skills/excellence of others. |
Optimal | I recognize, emotionally experience, and appreciate the beauty around me and the excellence of others. | |
Overuse | I see the beauty and excellence in everything around me and am startled or upset by those that do not. | |
Gratitude | Underuse | I only have myself to thank for my achievements. |
Optimal | I am grateful for many things and I express that thankfulness to others. | |
Overuse | I express so much thankfulness to others that it seems excessive to them or it irritates them. | |
Hope | Underuse | I am pessimistic about the future and about my goals. |
Optimal | I am full of optimism about the future, believing in my actions and feeling confident things will turn out well. | |
Overuse | I am very confident things will turn out well for me no matter what, even if I don’t do anything. | |
Humor | Underuse | I am very serious and less inclined to joke, smile, or see the lighter side of things. |
Optimal | I approach life playfully, making others laugh, and finding humor at difficult/stressful times. | |
Overuse | I make jokes and find playfulness in everything, even at the expense of others. | |
Spirituality | Underuse | I don’t believe there is a higher power; or I don’t feel I have a place or purpose in the universe. |
Optimal | I feel spiritual and believe in a higher purpose or higher power; and I see my place in the grand scheme of the universe. | |
Overuse | I feel that a higher power directs me and that things happen because of my place in the universe; or I impose my spiritual beliefs on others. |
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Littman-Ovadia, H., Freidlin, P. Positive Psychopathology and Positive Functioning: OCD, Flourishing and Satisfaction with Life through the Lens of Character Strength Underuse, Overuse and Optimal Use. Applied Research Quality Life 15, 529–549 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-018-9701-5
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-018-9701-5