Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Estimation of spatial variability of soil water storage along the south–north transect on China’s Loess Plateau using the state-space approach

  • Soils, Sec 2 • Global Change, Environ Risk Assess, Sustainable Land Use • Research Article
  • Published:
Journal of Soils and Sediments Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Purpose

Soil water is a critical variable for hydrological and biological processes in arid and semi-arid ecosystems. Information on regional spatial pattern of soil water storage (SWS) and its relationship with environmental factors is important for optimal water management and vegetation restoration in China’s Loess Plateau (CLP) region. State-space approach and artificial neural network (ANN) were used to analyze spatial variability of SWS in the CLP region.

Materials and methods

SWS in the 0–1, 1–2, 2–3, 3–4, and 4–5 m soil layers was measured during the period from June 2013 to September 2015 at 86 locations along a 860 km long south–north transect of CLP.

Results and discussion

The analysis showed that SWS in the 5 m soil profile generally decreased with increasing latitude, driven by decreasing precipitation and soil–water holding capacity. Using various combinations of variables, the state-space model gave a better spatial pattern of SWS than the ANN approach. The best state-space approach, which included clay content, mean annual precipitation, and slope gradient, explained 96.0% of the total variation in SWS. Then, the best ANN approach explained only 76.2% of the variation. Clay content, mean annual precipitation, and slope gradient was the most effective combination for large-scale estimation of SWS under the state-space approach.

Conclusions

The state-space model was recommended as an effective method for analyzing large-scale spatial patterns of soil water using soil, climatic, and topographic properties in the CLP region.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Baker L, Ellison D (2008) Optimisation of pedotransfer functions using an artificial neural network ensemble method. Geoderma 144:212–224

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Biswas A, Si BC (2011) Scales and locations of time stability of soil water storage in a hummocky landscape. J Hydrol 408:100–112

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Biswas A (2014) Landscape characteristics influence the spatial pattern of soil water storage: similarity over times and at depths. Catena 116:68–77

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brocca L, Melone F, Moramarco T, Morbidelli R (2010) Spatial-temporal variability of soil moisture and its estimation across scales. Water Resour Res 46:294–307

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cambardella CA, Moorman TB, Novak JM, Parkin TB, Karlen DL, Turco RF, Konopka AE (1994) Field-scale variability of soil properties in central Iowa soils. Soil Sci Soc Am J 58:1501–1511

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cassel DK, Wendroth O, Nielsen DR (2000) Assessing spatial variability in an agricultural experiment station field: opportunities arising from spatial dependence. Agron J 92:706–714

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chaney NW, Roundy JK, Herrera-Estrada JE, Wood EF (2015) High-resolution modeling of the spatial heterogeneity of soil moisture: applications in network design. Water Resour Res 51:619–638

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Choi M, Jacobs JM (2007) Soil moisture variability of root zone profiles within SMEX02 remote sensing footprints. Adv Water Resour 30:883–896

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • da Silva AP, Nadler A, Kay BD (2001) Factors contributing to temporal stability in spatial patterns of water content in the tillage zone. Soil Till Res 58:207–218

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duan L, Huang M, Zhang L (2016) Use of a state-space approach to predict soil water storage at the hillslope scale on the Loess Plateau, China. Catena 137:563–571

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • FAO/ISRIC/ISSS, 1998. World reference base for soil resources. World Soil Rec. Rep 84. FAO, Rome

  • Gao L, Shao M (2012) Temporal stability of soil water storage in diverse soil layers. Catena 95:24–32

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gao X, Wu P, Zhao X, Wang J, Shi Y, Zhang B, Tian L, Li H (2013) Estimation of spatial soil moisture averages in a large gully of the Loess Plateau of China through statistical and modeling solutions. J Hydrol 486:466–478

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Georgakakos KP (1996) Special issue—soil moisture theories and observations—preface. J Hydrol 184:1–1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Geris J, Tetzlaff D, McDonnell J, Soulsby C (2015) The relative role of soil type and tree cover on water storage and transmission in northern headwater catchments. Hydrol Process 29:1844–1860

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gómez-Plaza A, Martinez-Mena M, Albaladejo J, Castillo VM (2001) Factors regulating spatial distribution of soil water content in small semiarid catchments. J Hydrol 253:211–226

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goovaerts P (1999) Geostatistics in soil science: state-of-the-art and perspectives. Geoderma 89:1–45

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hu W, Shao M, Wang Q, Reichardt K (2009) Time stability of soil water storage measured by neutron probe and the effects of calibration procedures in a small watershed. Catena 79:72–82

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hu W, Shao M, Han F, Reichardt K, Tan J (2010) Watershed scale temporal stability of soil water content. Geoderma 158:181–198

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs JM, Mohanty BP, Hsu EC, Miller D (2004) SMEX02: field scale variability, time stability and similarity of soil moisture. Remote Sens Environ 92:436–446

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jia X, Shao M, Wei X, Horton R, Li X (2011) Estimating total net primary productivity of managed grasslands by a state-space modeling approach in a small catchment on the Loess Plateau, China. Geoderma 160:281–291

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jia X, Shao M, Wei X (2012) State-space prediction of soil respiration time series in temperate, semi-arid grassland in northern China. Soil Res 50:293–303

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jia X, Shao M, Wei X, Wang Y (2013) Hillslope scale temporal stability of soil water storage in diverse soil layers. J Hydrol 498:254–264

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jia X, Shao M, Zhang C, Zhao C (2015a) Regional temporal persistence of dried soil layer along south-north transect of the Loess Plateau, China. J Hydrol 528:152–160

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jia X, Xie B, Shao M, Zhao C (2015b) Primary productivity and precipitation-use efficiency in temperate grassland in the Loess Plateau of China. PLoS One 10

  • Jin TT, Fu BJ, Liu GH, Wang Z (2011) Hydrologic feasibility of artificial forestation in the semi-arid Loess Plateau of China. Hydrol Earth Syst Sc 15:2519–2530

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Joschko M, Fox CA, Lentzsch P, Kiesel J, Hierold W, Kruck S, Timmer J (2006) Spatial analysis of earthworm biodiversity at the regional scale. Agric Ecosyst Environ 112:367–380

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kalman RE (1960) A new approach to linear filtering and prediction problems. J Basic Eng 82:35–45

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li M, Zhang X, Pang G, Han F (2013) The estimation of soil organic carbon distribution and storage in a small catchment area of the Loess Plateau. Catena 101:11–16

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li XP, Chang SX, Salifu KF (2014) Soil texture and layering effects on water and salt dynamics in the presence of a water table: a review. Environ Rev 22:1–10

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li YS, Huang MB (2008) Pasture yield and soil water depletion of continuous growing alfalfa in the Loess Plateau of China. Agric Ecosyst Environ 124:3–12

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu B, Ma S (2014) Estimation of soil water storage using temporal stability in four land uses over 10 years on the Loess Plateau, China. J Hydrol 517:974–984

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu BX, Shao MA (2016) Response of soil water dynamics to precipitation years under different vegetation types on the northern Loess Plateau, China. J Arid Land 8:47–59

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu Z, Ma S, Wang Y (2012) Estimating soil organic carbon across a large-scale region: a state-space modeling approach. Soil Sci 177:607–618

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mandal UK, Warrington DN, Bhardwaj AK, Bar-Tal A, Kautsky L, Minz D, Levy GJ (2008) Evaluating impact of irrigation water quality on a calcareous clay soil using principal component analysis. Geoderma 144:189–197

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Minasny B, McBratney AB (2000) Evaluation and development of hydraulic conductivity pedotransfer functions for Australian soil. Aust J Soil Res 38:905–926

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morkoc F, Biggar JW, Nielsen DR, Rolston DE (1985) Analysis of soil-water content and temperature using state-space approach. Soil Sci Soc Am J 49:798–803

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Motaghian HR, Mohammadi J (2011) Spatial estimation of saturated hydraulic conductivity from terrain attributes using regression, kriging, and artificial neural networks. Pedosphere 21:170–177

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murray CD, Buttle JM (2005) Infiltration and soil water mixing on forested and harvested slopes during spring snowmelt, Turkey Lakes Watershed, central Ontario. J Hydrol 306:1–20

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nielsen DR, Alemi MH (1989) Statistical opportunities for analyzing spatial and temporal heterogeneity of field soils. Plant Soil 115:285–296

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nielsen DR, Wendroth O, Pierce FJ (1999) Emerging concepts for solving the enigma of precision farming research, in: Robert PC, Rust RH, Larson WE. (Eds), Proceedings of Fourth International Conference on Precision Agriculture, Minneapolis, MI:303–318

  • Nielsen DR, Wendroth O (2003) Spatial and temporal statistics: sampling field soils and their vegetation. Catena, Reiskirchen

    Google Scholar 

  • Penna D, Borga M, Norbiato D, Fontana GD (2009) Hillslope scale soil moisture variability in a steep alpine terrain. J Hydrol 364:311–327

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Qiu Y, Fu BJ, Wang J, Chen LD (2003) Spatiotemporal prediction of soil moisture content using multiple-linear regression in a small catchment of the Loess Plateau, China. Catena 54:173–195

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwen A, Yang Y, Wendroth O (2013) State-space models describe the spatial variability of bromide leaching controlled by land use, irrigation, and pedologic characteristics. Vadose Zone J 12:108–112

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • She D, Gao X, Song J, Timm LC, Hu W (2014) Soil organic carbon estimation with topographic properties in artificial grassland using a state-space modeling approach. Can J Soil Sci 94:503–514

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shumway RH, Biggar JW, Morkoc F, Bazza M, Nielsen DR, Shumway RH, Biggar JW, Morkoc F, Nielsen DR (1989) Time- and frequency-domain analyses of field observations1. Soil Sci 147:1344–1354

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shumway RH (1988) Applied statistical time series analysis. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey

    Google Scholar 

  • Shumway RH, Stoffer DS (1982) An approach to time series smoothing and forecasting using the EM algorithm. J Time Ser Anal 3:253–264

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Timm LC, Reichardt K, Oliveira JCM, Cassaro FAM, Tominaga TT, Bacchi OOS, Dourado-Neto D (2003) Sugarcane production evaluated by the state-space approach. J Hydrol 272:226–237

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vereecken H, Kamai T, Harter T, Kasteel R, Hopmans J, Vanderborght J (2007) Explaining soil moisture variability as a function of mean soil moisture: a stochastic unsaturated flow perspective. Geophys Res Lett 34:315–324

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wallender WW (1987) Sample volume statistical relations for water content, infiltration, and yield. Trans ASABE 30:1043–1050

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang H, Hall CAS, Cornell JD, Hall MHP (2002) Spatial dependence and the relationship of soil organic carbon and soil moisture in the Luquillo Experimental Forest, Puerto Rico. Landscape Ecol 17:671–684

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang L, Mou PP, Huang J, Wang J (2007) Spatial heterogeneity of soil nitrogen in a subtropical forest in China. Plant Soil 295:137–150

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang YQ, Shao MA, Liu ZP (2010) Large-scale spatial variability of dried soil layers and related factors across the entire Loess Plateau of China. Geoderma 159:99–108

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang Y, Ma S, Zhu Y, Liu Z (2011) Impacts of land use and plant characteristics on dried soil layers in different climatic regions on the Loess Plateau of China. Agric For Meteorol 151:437–448

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang Y, Ma S, Liu Z, Warrington DN (2012) Regional spatial pattern of deep soil water content and its influencing factors. Hydrolog Sci 57:265–281

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang Y, Ma S, Liu Z, Horton R (2013) Regional-scale variation and distribution patterns of soil saturated hydraulic conductivities in surface and subsurface layers in the loessial soils of China. J Hydrol 487:13–23

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang Y, Ma S, Liu Z, Zhang C (2014) Prediction of bulk density of soils in the Loess Plateau region of China. Surv Geophys 35:395–413

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang ZQ, Liu BY, Liu G, Zhang RX (2009) Soil water depletion depth by planted vegetation on the Loess Plateau. Sci China Ser D 52:835–842

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wendroth O, Rogasik H, Koszinski S, Ritsema C, Dekker L, Nielsen D (1999) State-space prediction of field-scale soil water content time series in a sandy loam. Soil Till Res 50:85–93

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wendroth O, Reuter HI, Kersebaum KC (2003) Predicting yield of barley across a landscape: a state-space modeling approach. J Hydrol 272:250–263

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Western AW, Grayson RB, Bloschl G, Willgoose GR, McMahon TA (1999) Observed spatial organization of soil moisture and its relation to terrain indices. Water Resour Res 35:797–810

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Western AW, Zhou SL, Grayson RB, McMahon TA, Bloschl G, Wilson DJ (2004) Spatial correlation of soil moisture in small catchments and its relationship to dominant spatial hydrol process. J Hydrol 286:113–134

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yang QY, Zhang BP, Zheng D (1988) On the boundary of the Loess Plateau. J Nat Resour 3:9–15 (in Chinese with English abstract)

    Google Scholar 

  • Yang Y, Wendroth O (2014) State-space approach to analyze field-scale bromide leaching. Geoderma 217-218:161–172

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zeleke TB, Si BC (2005) Scaling relationships between saturated hydraulic conductivity and soil physical properties. Soil Sci Soc Am J 69:1691–1702

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao C, Ma S, Jia X, Nasir M, Zhang C (2016a) Using pedotransfer functions to estimate soil hydraulic conductivity in the Loess Plateau of China. Catena 143:1–6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao C, Ma S, Jia X, Zhang C (2016b) Particle size distribution of soils (0–500 cm) in the Loess Plateau, China. Geoderma Regional 7:251–258

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 41530854, 41571130081 and 41501233), the National Key Project for Research and Development (2016YFC0501605), and the Program for Bingwei Excellent Talents in the Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences (2015RC204). We thank the editor and reviewers for their comments and suggestions, which were used to standardize the quality of the paper.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. College of Natural Resources and Environment, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, China

    Chunlei Zhao & Ming’an Shao

  2. State Key Laboratory of Soil Erosion and Dryland Farming on the Loess Plateau, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, 712100, China

    Chunlei Zhao, Ming’an Shao & Yuanjun Zhu

  3. Key Laboratory of Ecosystem Network Observation and Modeling, Institute of Geographical Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China

    Ming’an Shao & Xiaoxu Jia

  4. College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China

    Ming’an Shao & Xiaoxu Jia

Authors
  1. Chunlei Zhao
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Ming’an Shao
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Xiaoxu Jia
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Yuanjun Zhu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Ming’an Shao or Xiaoxu Jia.

Additional information

Responsible editor: Hailong Wang

Electronic supplementary material

ESM 1

(DOCX 93 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Zhao, C., Shao, M., Jia, X. et al. Estimation of spatial variability of soil water storage along the south–north transect on China’s Loess Plateau using the state-space approach. J Soils Sediments 17, 1009–1020 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-016-1626-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-016-1626-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation