Abstract
Most scholars support the increase in carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions as one of the major causes of the increase in global climate change. Therefore, reducing CO2 emissions from the main emitter countries, including Iran as the sixth emitter, is important to deal with the harmful effects of global climate change. Accordingly, the main aim of this paper was to analyze the social, economic, and technical factors affecting CO2 emissions in Iran. Previous studies on diverse variables affecting emissions are not very accurate and reliable as they do not consider indirect effects. This study applied a structural equation model (SEM) to estimate the direct and indirect impacts of factors on the emissions by panel data for 28 provinces of Iran from 2003 to 2019. According to geographical location, three distinct regions, the north, center, and south of Iran were considered. The findings suggest that a 1% increase in social factor directly increased CO2 emissions by 2.23% (in the north) and 1.58% (in the center), but indirectly reduced emissions by 0.41% (in the north) and 0.92% (in the center). Hence, the total effects of the social factor on CO2 emissions were estimated at 1.82%, and 0.66% in the northern, and central regions, respectively. In addition, the total effects of the economic factor on CO2 emissions were estimated at 1.52%, and 0.73% in those regions. The results of this study showed that the direct effects of a technical factor on CO2 emissions were negative in the north and center. However, they were positive in the south of Iran. Based on the empirical results of this study, three policy implications are discussed in order to control CO2 emissions in regional distinctions of Iran as follows: First, policymakers should pay attention to the social factor, i.e., the growth of human capital in the southern region with the aim of increasing sustainable development. Second, Iranian policymakers must prevent unilaterally increasing gross domestic product (GDP) and financial development in the north and center. Third, policymakers should pay attention to the technical factor, i.e., improving energy efficiency, as well as upgrading information and communications technology (ICT) in the northern and central regions, and limiting the technical factor in the southern region.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Source: Study findings
Source: Study findings
Source: Study findings
Source: Study findings
Source: Study findings
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available in the https://pep.moe.gov.ir/
References
Acheampong AO (2019) Modelling for insight: Does financial development improve environmental quality? Energy Econ 83:156–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2019.06.025
Ahmad M, Zhao Z-Y (2018) Empirics on linkages among industrialization, urbanization, energy consumption, CO2 emissions and economic growth: a heterogeneous panel study of China. Environ Sci Pollut Res. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-3054-3
Aldieri L, Vinci CP (2020) Climate change and Knowledge Spillovers for Cleaner Production: New insights. J Clean Prod 271:122729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122729
Amri F (2018) Carbon dioxide emissions, total factor productivity, ICT, trade, financial development, and energy consumption: testing environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis for Tunisia. Environ Sci Pollut Res 25:33691–33701. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-3331-1
Ang BW, Goh T (2018) Bridging the gap between energy-to-GDP ratio and composite energy intensity index. Energy Policy 119:105–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.038
Apergis N, Ben Jebli M, Ben Youssef S (2018) Does renewable energy consumption and health expenditures decrease carbon dioxide emissions? Evidence for sub-Saharan Africa countries. Renew Energy 127:1011–1016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.05.043
Aydin C, Cetintas Y (2022) Does the level of renewable energy matter in the effect of economic growth on environmental pollution? New evidence from PSTR analysis. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29(54):81624–81635. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-21516-z
Bano S, Zhao Y, Ahmad A, Wang S, Liu Y (2018) Identifying the impacts of human capital on carbon emissions in Pakistan. J Clean Prod 183:1082–1092. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.02.008
Benke K, Tomkins B (2017) Future food-production systems: vertical farming and controlled-environment agriculture. Sustainability: Sci, Pract Policy 13(1):13–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/15487733.2017.1394054
Berlemann M, Wesselhöft JE (2014) Estimating aggregate capital stocks using the perpetual inventory method. Rev Econ 65(1):1–34. https://doi.org/10.1515/roe-2014-0102
Boserup E (1965) The Conditions of Agricultural Growth. Aldine, Chicago
Chen S, Zhang H, Wang S (2022) Trade openness, economic growth, and energy intensity in China. Technol Forecast Soc Chang 179:121608. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2022.121608
Collins N, Jones S, Nguyen TH, Stanton P (2017) The contribution of human capital to a holistic response to climate change: learning from and for the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. Asia Pac Bus Rev 23(2):230–242. https://doi.org/10.1080/13602381.2017.1299449
Crippa M, Oreggioni G, Guizzardi D, Muntean M, Schaaf E, Lo Vullo E, Solazzo E, Monforti-Ferrario F, Olivier JGJ, Vignati E (2019) Fossil CO2 and GHG emissions of all world countries - 2019 Report, EUR 29849 EN, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. https://doi.org/10.2760/687800,JRC117610
Cui X, Fang C, Liu H, Liu X (2019) Assessing sustainability of urbanization by a coordinated development index for an Urbanization-Resources-Environment complex system: A case study of Jing-Jin-Ji region, China. Ecol Ind 96:383–391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2018.09.009
D’Ambra L, Crisci A, Meccariello G, Della Ragione L, Palma R (2021) Evaluation of the social and economic impact of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions on sustainable mobility using cumulative ordinal models: trend odds model. Socio-Econ Plan Sci 75:100817. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seps.2020.100817
Danish, Khan N, Baloch MA, Saud S, Fatima T (2018) The effect of ICT on CO2 emissions in emerging economies: does the level of income matters? Environ Sci Pollut Res 25(23):22850–22860. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-2379-2
Dehghan Shabani Z, Shahnazi R (2018) Energy consumption, carbon dioxide emissions, information and communications technology, and gross domestic product in Iranian economic sectors: A panel causality analysis. Energy 169:1064–1078. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2018.11.062
Dietz T, Rosa EA (1997) Effects of population and affluence on CO2 emissions. Proc Natl Acad Sci 94(1):175–179. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.94.1.175
Dong K, Sun R, Hochman G (2017) Do natural gas and renewable energy consumption lead to less CO2 emission? Empirical evidence from a panel of BRICS countries. Energy 141:1466–1478. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2017.11.092
Ehrlich PR, Holdren JP (1971) Impact of population growth. Science 171(3977):1212–1217
Ganda F (2021) The Environmental Impacts of Human Capital in the BRICS Economies. J Knowl Econ. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13132-021-00737-6
Gasimli O, Haq I, Gamage SKN, Shihadeh F, Rajapakshe PSK, Shafiq M (2019) Energy, Trade, Urbanization and Environmental Degradation Nexus in Sri Lanka: Bounds Testing Approach. Energies 12(9):1655. https://doi.org/10.3390/en12091655
Gierałtowska U, Asyngier R, Nakonieczny J, Salahodjaev R (2022) Renewable Energy, Urbanization, and CO2 Emissions: A Global Test. Energies 15:3390. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15093390
Gunzler D, Chen T, Wu P, Zhang H (2013) Introduction to mediation analysis with structural equation modeling. Shanghai Arch Psychiatry 25(6):390–395. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002-0829.2013.06.009
Haini H (2021) Examining the impact of ICT, human capital and carbon emissions: Evidence from the ASEAN economies. Int Econ 166:116–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inteco.2021.03.003
Hair JFJ, Black WC, Babin BJ, Anderson RE (2010) Multivariate Data Analysis, 7th edn. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ
Hajilary N, Shahi A, Rezakazemi M (2018) Evaluation of socio-economic factors on CO2 emissions in Iran: Factorial design and multivariable methods. J Clean Prod 189:108–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.04.067
Hao L-N, Umar M, Khan Z, Ali W (2021) Green growth and low carbon emission in G7 countries: How critical the network of environmental taxes, renewable energy and human capital is? Sci Total Environ 752:141853. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141853
Haputta P, Bowonthumrongchai T, Puttanapong N, Gheewala SH (2022) Effects of Biofuel Crop Expansion on Green Gross Domestic Product. Sustainability 14:3369. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14063369
Hosseini HM, Kaneko S (2013) Can environmental quality spread through institutions? Energy Policy 56:312–321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2012.12.067
Inglesi-Lotz R, Dogan E (2018) The role of renewable versus non-renewable energy to the level of CO2 emissions a panel analysis of sub- Saharan Africa’s Βig 10 electricity generators. Renew Energy 123:36–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.02.041
Isiksal AZ, Assi AF, Zhakanov A, Rakhmetullina SZ, Joof F (2022) Natural resources, human capital, and CO2 emissions: Missing evidence from the Central Asian States. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29:77333–77343. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-21227-5
Jebli MB, Farhani S, Guesmi K (2020) Renewable energy, CO2 emissions and value added: Empirical evidence from countries with different income levels. Struct Chang Econ Dyn 53:402–410
Joshi P, Beck K (2018) Democracy and carbon dioxide emissions: Assessing the interactions of political and economic freedom and the environmental Kuznets curve. Energy Res Soc Sci 39:46–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2017.10.020
Kang Y-Q, Zhao T, Yang Y-Y (2016) Environmental Kuznets curve for CO 2 emissions in China: A spatial panel data approach. Ecol Ind 63:231–239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2015.12.011
Khan I, Hou F, Zakari A, Irfan M, Ahmad M (2022) Links among energy intensity, non-linear financial development, and environmental sustainability: new evidence from Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation countries. J Clean Prod 330:129747. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.129747
Khan Z, Ali S, Dong K, Li RYM (2020) How does fiscal decentralization affect CO2 emissions? The roles of institutions and human capital. Energy Econ 105060. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2020.105060
Kock N (2023) Testing and controlling for endogeneity in PLS-SEM with stochastic instrumental variables. Data Anal Perspect J 3(3):1–6
Kongkuah M, Yao H, Yilanci V (2021) The relationship between energy consumption, economic growth, and CO2 emissions in China: the role of urbanisation and international trade. Environ Dev Sustain 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-021-01628-1
Lee JW, Brahmasrene T (2014) ICT, CO2 Emissions and Economic Growth: Evidence from a Panel of ASEAN. Glob Econ Rev 43(2):93–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/1226508x.2014.917803
Lee C-C, Yuan Z, Wang Q (2022) How does information and communication technology affect energy security? International evidence. Energy Econ 109:105969. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4025874
Letcher TM (2019) Why do we have global warming? Managing Global Warming 3–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-814104-5.00001-6
Li K, Lin B (2015) Impacts of urbanization and industrialization on energy consumption/CO2 emissions: does the level of development matter? Renew Sustain Energy Rev 52:1107–1122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.07.185
Li J, Luo Y, Wang S (2019b) Spatial effects of economic performance on the carbon intensity of human well-being: The environmental Kuznets curve in Chinese provinces. J Clean Prod 233:681–694. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.05.396
Li K, Fang L, He L (2019a) The impact of energy price on CO2 emissions in China: A spatial econometric analysis. Sci Total Environ 135942. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135942
Lin B, Xu B (2018) Factors affecting CO2 emissions in China’s agriculture sector: A quantile regression. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 94:15–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.05.065
Liu Q, Wang S, Zhang W, Li J (2018) Income distribution and environmental quality in China: A spatial econometric perspective. J Clean Prod 205:14–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.09.090
Liu X, Ou J, Chen Y, Wang S, Li X, Jiao L, Liu Y (2019) Scenario simulation of urban energy-related CO2 emissions by coupling the socioeconomic factors and spatial structures. Appl Energy 238:1163–1178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.01.173
Luo K, Li G, Fang C, Sun S (2018) PM 2.5 mitigation in China: Socioeconomic determinants of concentrations and differential control policies. J Environ Manag 213:47–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.02.044
Lv Z, Li S (2021) How financial development affects CO2 emissions: A spatial econometric analysis. J Environ Manag 277:111397. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.111397
Mahmood N, Wang Z, Hassan ST (2019) Renewable energy, economic growth, human capital, and CO2 emission: an empirical analysis. Environ Sci Pollut Res. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-05387-5
Malthus TR (1798) Essay on the principle of population (eds) EA Wrigley and David Souden. London: William Pickering
Markus KA (2012) Principles and practice of structural equation modeling by Rex B Kline. Struct Equ Model 19(3):509–512
McGee JA, York R (2018) Asymmetric relationship of urbanization and CO2 emissions in less developed countries. PloS one 13(12):e0208388. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0208388
Mirzaei M, Bekri M (2017) Energy consumption and CO2 emissions in Iran, 2025. Environ Res 154:345–351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2017.01.023
Mohsin M, Naseem S, Sarfraz M, Azam T (2022) Assessing the effects of fuel energy consumption, foreign direct investment and GDP on CO2 emission: New data science evidence from Europe & Central Asia. Fuel 314:123098. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2021.123098
Mueller RO (1996) Basic Principles of Structural Equation Modeling. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-3974-1
Mukhlis M (2020) The causality between human capital, energy consumption, CO2 emissions, and economic growth: empirical evidence from Indonesia. Available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3626060.10.2139/ssrn.3626060 . 13 June 2020
Naso P, Lanz B, Swanson T (2020) The Return of Malthus? Resource Constraints in an Era of Declining Population Growth. Eur Econ Rev 128:103499. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2020.103499
Nathaniel SP, Nwulu N, Bekun F (2021) Natural resource, globalization, urbanization, human capital, and environmental degradation in Latin American and Caribbean countries. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28:6207–6221. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-10850-9
Nie Y, Li Q, Wang E, Zhang T (2019) Study of the nonlinear relations between economic growth and carbon dioxide emissions in the Eastern, Central and Western regions of China. J Clean Prod 219:713–722. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.01.164
Rahman MM, Nepal R, Alam K (2021) Impacts of human capital, exports, economic growth and energy consumption on CO2 emissions of a cross-sectionally dependent panel: Evidence from the newly industrialized countries (NICs). Environ Sci Policy 121:24–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2021.03.017
Rahman MM, Sultana N, Velayutham E (2022) Renewable energy, energy intensity and carbon reduction: Experience of large emerging economies. Renew Energy 184:252–265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2021.11.068
Rahmani O, Rezania S, Beiranvand Pour A, Aminpour SM, Soltani M, Ghaderpour Y, Oryani B (2020) An Overview of Household Energy Consumption and Carbon Dioxide Emissions in Iran. Processes 8(8):994. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8080994
Salazar-Núñez HF, Venegas-Martínez F, Lozano-Díez JA (2021) Assessing the interdependence among renewable and non-renewable energies, economic growth, and CO2 emissions in Mexico. Environ Dev Sustain 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-021-01968-y
Saleem N, Rahman SU, Jun Z (2019) The impact of human capital and biocapacity on environment: Environmental quality measure through ecological footprint and greenhouse gases. J Pollut Effects Control 7(2):237
Salim R, Rafiq S, Shafiei S, Yao Y (2019) Does urbanization increase pollutant emission and energy intensity? evidence from some Asian developing economies. Appl Econ 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2019.1588947
Sarkodie SA, Adams S, Owusu PA, Leirvik T, Ozturk I (2020) Mitigating degradation and emissions in China: The role of environmental sustainability, human capital and renewable energy. Sci Total Environ 137530. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137530
Shahnazi R, Dehghan Shabani Z (2019) The effects of spatial spillover information and communications technology on carbon dioxide emissions in Iran. Environ Sci Pollut Res. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-05636-7
Sima V, Gheorghe IG, Subić J, Nancu D (2020) Influences of the Industry 4.0 Revolution on the Human Capital Development and Consumer Behavior: A Systematic Review. Sustainability 12(10):4035. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12104035
Sinha A, Shahbaz M (2018) Estimation of Environmental Kuznets Curve for CO 2 emission: Role of renewable energy generation in India. Renew Energy 119:703–711. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2017.12.058
Tambotoh JJC, Manuputty AD, Banunaek FE (2015) Socio-economics Factors and Information Technology Adoption in Rural Area. Proc Comput Sci 72:178–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2015.12.119
Usman M, Jahanger A, Makhdum MSA, Balsalobre-Lorente D, Bashir A (2022) How do financial development, energy consumption, natural resources, and globalization affect Arctic countries’ economic growth and environmental quality? An advanced panel data simulation. Energy 241:122515. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2021.122515
Wang Y, He X (2019) Spatial economic dependency in the Environmental Kuznets Curve of carbon dioxide: The case of China. J Clean Prod 218:498–510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.01.318
Wang J, Xu Y (2021) Internet Usage, Human Capital and CO2 Emissions: A Global Perspective. Sustainability 13(15):8268. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13158268
Wang Y, Zhao T (2018a) Impacts of urbanization-related factors on CO 2 emissions: Evidence from China’s three regions with varied urbanization levels. Atmos Pollut Res 9(1):15–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2017.06.002
Wang Y, Zhao T (2018b) Panel estimation for the impacts of residential characteristic factors on CO2 emissions from residential sector in China. Atmos Pollut Res 9(4):595–606. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2017.12.010
Wang S, Liu X, Zhou C, Hu J, Ou J (2017) Examining the impacts of socioeconomic factors, urban form, and transportation networks on CO2 emissions in China’s megacities. Appl Energy 185:189–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.10.052
Wang S, Zeng J, Huang Y, Shi C, Zhan P (2018) The effects of urbanization on CO 2 emissions in the Pearl River Delta: A comprehensive assessment and panel data analysis. Appl Energy 228:1693–1706. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.06.155
Wen L, Li Z (2019) Driving forces of national and regional CO2 emissions in China combined IPAT-E and PLS-SEM model. Sci Total Environ 690:237–247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.06.370
Werner C, Schermelleh-Engel K (2009) Structural equation modeling: Advantages, challenges, and problems. Introduction to structural equation modeling with LISREL
Wiedenhofer D, Lenzen M, Steinberger JK (2013) Energy requirements of consumption: Urban form, climatic and socio-economic factors, rebounds and their policy implications. Energy Policy 63:696–707. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2013.07.035
Xia Y, Yang Y (2018) RMSEA, CFI, and TLI in structural equation modeling with ordered categorical data: The story they tell depends on the estimation methods. Behav Res Methods 51(1):409–428. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-018-1055-2
Xu X, Huang S, An H (2021) Identification and causal analysis of the influence channels of financial development on CO2 emissions. Energy Policy 153:112277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2021.112277
Yang Y, Zhou Y, Poon J, He Z (2019) China’s carbon dioxide emission and driving factors: A spatial analysis. J Clean Prod 211:640–651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.11.185
Yao Y, Zhang L, Salim R, Rafiq S (2020b) The Effect of Human Capital on CO2 Emissions: Macro Evidence from China. Energy J. https://doi.org/10.5547/01956574.42.6.yyao
Yao Y, Ivanovski K, Inekwe J, Smyth R (2020a) Human capital and CO2 emissions in the long run. Energy Econ 104907. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2020.104907
You W, Lv Z (2018) Spillover effects of economic globalization on CO2 emissions: A spatial panel approach. Energy Econ 73:248–257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2018.05.016
Zafar MW, Saud S, Hou F (2019) The impact of globalization and financial development on environmental quality: evidence from selected countries in the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Environ Sci Pollut Res. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-04761-7
Zakaria M, Bibi S (2019) Financial development and environment in South Asia: the role of institutional quality. Environ Sci Pollut Res 26:7926–7937. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-04284-1
Zhang C, Lin Y (2012) Panel estimation for urbanization, energy consumption and CO2 emissions: A regional analysis in China. Energy Policy 49:488–498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2012.06.048
Zhang G, Zhang N, Liao W (2018) How do population and land urbanization affect CO2 emissions under gravity center change? A spatial econometric analysis. J Clean Prod 202:510–523. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.08.146
Zhao B, Yang W (2020) Does financial development influence CO2 emissions? A Chinese province-level study. Energy 117523. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2020.117523
Zhou C, Wang S (2018) Examining the determinants and the spatial nexus of city-level CO 2 emissions in China: A dynamic spatial panel analysis of China’s cities. J Clean Prod 171:917–926. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.10.096
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank to the editors and anonymous reviewers for their most valuable comments and constructive suggestions on this paper.
Funding
This research received grant from Shiraz University (number: 98GRC1M214582).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Samane Ghazali; conceptualization, methodology, software, validation, formal analysis, investigation, resources, data curation and writing—original draft preparation; Zahra Dehghan Shabani; conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis, resources, data curation and writing—review, enrich the paper, provided instructions, comments; Hossein Azadi; writing—review, enrich the paper, provided instructions, comments.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Eyup Dogan
Publisher's note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Appendix
Appendix
Figure 6
The gap for social, economic, and technical factors among three studied regions
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Ghazali, S., Shabani, Z.D. & Azadi, H. Social, economic, and technical factors affecting CO2 emissions in Iran. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30, 70397–70420 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-27344-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-27344-z