Introduction

Electricity is the most preferred form of energy known to human beings. It gained popularity due to its ease of use and ability of quick transformation into other energy forms. In the modern world, an individual needs electricity at every step of life. So, its demand is rising concurrently with the population. In 2017, 2018, 2019, and 2020, the global consumption was 22,270, 23,176, and 23,742 TWh (Enerdata 2021). Paradoxically, consumption dropped to 23,584 TWh in 2020 (Enerdata 2021) due to the COVID-19 pandemic. However, the growth rate in the generation was not analogous, resulting in a gradual increment in electricity deficiency: in the respective years, 88.60, 89.42, 90.08, and 90.4% of the world population had access to electricity (The World Data Bank 2011), while 11.40, 10.58, 9.92, and 9.60% were deprived. Up till now, most of the power is generated from fossil fuels, which is evident from the fact that in 2020, exhaustible resources supplied 61.3% (World Energy Data 2021) of the global requirement. Combustion of these fuels releases greenhouse gases (GHG) along with other polluting agents that are detrimental to our environment (Pastore et al. 2022). Moreover, continuous extractions from limited stocks are curtailing their reserve. On the contrary, nature has provided many inexhaustible and non-polluting energy sources like the Sun, wind, flowing water, and rain which can be exploited for power generation.

For the survival of the living being, the foremost requirement is air, and the second one is water. The sustenance of life can be counted in minutes without air and days devoid of water. Recently many parts of the world are experiencing a shortage of this second most-precious resource. According to UNICEF (2021):

  • Four billion people (almost two-thirds of the world’s population) suffer from severe water crises for at least 1 month every year.

  • Over two billion people live in areas where there is a dearth of water supply.

  • Very soon (by 2025), water will disappear from many places, and half of the world’s population may have to face water scarcity.

  • Around 700 million people may encounter intense water shortages by 2030.

The statistics reveal that electricity demand (Castillo et al. 2022) and environmental pollution (Kahouli and Chaaben 2022) are escalating, whereas drinking water availability is declining at an alarming rate (World Health Organization 2022). The scarcity of electricity and drinking water become conspicuous in epidemic and pandemic situations like COVID-19. Hence, it has become essential to find some way out. Harvesting rainwater can substantially solve both problems.

Triboelectric generation is one of the emerging technologies for extracting electricity from rain. It is used for low-frequency generation, and hence, is not much popular. Liu et al. (2019) have developed a highly integrated triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) for the efficient collection of raindrop energy. At a water drop rate of 22 ml/s, they obtained a short-circuit current of 95.4 µA and an open-circuit voltage of 42.4 V. Xu et al. (2020) have fabricated a device comprising a polytetrafluoroethylene-film-coated indium-tin-oxide-substrate with aluminium electrodes for electricity generation from impinging water droplets. They found that when water droplets are impinged at a rate of 1.6 × 104, charges and voltage stabilize at 49.8 nC and 143.5 V, respectively. Zhao et al. (2021) have incorporated PV cells with TENG for the integrated generation of electricity from sunlight and rain and achieved a short-circuit current of 7.59 µA and an open-circuit voltage of 37.19 V. However, these manuscripts did not address the issue of drinking water.

On the contrary, some other researchers were interested in utilizing rainwater for drinking purposes. The authors in a study (Alim et al. 2020a) reviewed different literature and concluded that a small-scale rooftop system is economical and technically feasible for providing drinking water. Similarly, Latif et al. (2022) scrutinized many articles to find the disinfecting methods for domestic rainwater. They have opined that harvested rainwater needs pre-treatment before formal disinfection and the treated rainwater needs protection from recontamination for prolonged use. They recommended hypochlorite for the purpose as it has a residual effect and is also cost-effective. In another work (Kanno et al. 2021), the authors estimated the harvestable rainwater from the roof of a house in Dilla town of Ethiopia. They have found that a house with a roof of 40 m2 can collect 7.2 to 39.66 m3 of water, whereas a 100-m2 roof can gather 19.11 to 105.33 m3. Most of the work on rainwater harvesting systems dealt with entrapment but did not consider contamination. Collected rain may not be suitable for drinking purposes as it may contain acidic and non-acidic contaminants. In addition, casually designed and managed catchments encourage microbial growth and can pose a high health risk (World Health Organization 2008). Bui et al. (2021) were concerned about clean drinking water and hence, installed a Rainwater for Drinking (RFD) system at Ton Duc Thang University, Vietnam. They have employed four tanks, complex processes, and costly equipment to improve the quality of stored water. In another study, Alim et al. (2021) presented an integrated rainwater harvesting unit that is capable of producing 348 ± 20L a day. They have found that the filtered water complies with the specified guidelines of Australian drinking water. They have also found that the payback period of the unit at a rate of AU$ 0.07/L will be 8 years. In a similar investigation, Alim et al. (2020b) have examined the performance of a rainwater harvesting system considering roof size, tank size, water demand, and daily filtration rate. They observed that a small-scale system can mitigate the demand for drinking water with 90–97% efficiency depending on the roof size. They have also noticed that a tank size of 5 kL is appropriate for a roof of 100 m2 at Werrington, New South Wales.

Implementation of a separate triboelectric generator and drinking water systems are complex, a waste of resource, and a matter of financial ability. Moreover, they require a large distinct space for individual implementation. This paper presents an integrated low-cost system that will significantly contribute to limiting the prevailing problems associated with rainwater harvesting for power generation and drinking water. Hitherto, no literature has reported studying such a system to address these burning issues.

Conceptual model

Description

The conceptual model of the system is shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Conceptual model

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The system mainly consists of three sub-systems — a TENG for electricity production from dropping rain, a nano-hydro generator for power generation from the flow of collected water, and a filtering system for purification purposes. The primary electricity-generating element in the scheme is the TENG which operates on the principle of the triboelectric effect. The term ‘triboelectric’ came from Greek where Tribo (τρίβω) means ‘to rub’ or ‘to grate’, while ‘electric’ is derived from the Greek word for amber — ‘ἤλεκτρον’ (electron) (Projeda 2020).

The triboelectric effect is an electrostatic phenomenon in which a transfer of electric charge takes place when certain materials are rubbed together. In the process, one material donates electrons to another when they come in contact and separate or slide against each other. A positive charge develops on the surface of the contributing object, and a negative charge on the surface of the receiving stuff. For example, when a plastic pen is rubbed on a cotton or woollen piece of cloth, a negative charge is developed on the surface of the pen which is capable of attracting small pieces of neutral or meagre positively charged paper. The scientists made a list of the materials that show relevant properties known as the triboelectric series. The materials arranged in the series are according to their loathe and attraction towards electrons. The high-aversive materials are located toward the top, while the high-affinity substances are placed near the bottom (Zou et al. 2019).

In the proposed system, TENG constitutes the floor of the slanted rain collector (indicated in Fig. 1). Figure 2 shows the construction of the TENG. It contains a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)-film deposited indium-tin-oxide (ITO) glass substrate having a mesh of aluminium electrodes, as depicted in Fig. 2 a and b. These materials are selected because impinged water droplets can induce high charge density on the surface of fluorine-based material (Xu et al. 2020).

Fig. 2
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TENG

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The energy of flowing water is converted into electricity by a hydro-generator. It is a system in which a hydel turbine is coupled to an electricity generator. This integrated system converts the potential and kinetic energy in water into electricity. The energy in the stream of water is converted into mechanical energy by the turbine. This energy gets transferred to the generator through a coupled shaft and gets converted into electricity. There are two types of hydro-turbines to harness water energy — impulse and reaction. An impulse turbine is apposite for the location where water velocity is low but falls from a high head, i.e., for the area where there is a possibility of extracting more potential energy than kinetic energy, whereas a reaction turbine is suitable for low-head and higher flow-rate sites for entangling more kinetic energy. The impulse-type turbines are preferable for the proposed method as the kinetic energy in the flow of collected rain is inferior to the potential energy. The classification of hydropower systems according to their generating capacity is pivoted in Table 1 (Breez 2019).

Table 1 Hydel power plant category
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In the proposed scheme, generating capacity of the hydrosystems is in the range of watts. Thus, with the continuation of Table 1, the termed ‘nano-hydro generator’ has been used in the present work.

Rainwater generally nucleates on the particulate matter in the upper troposphere. They attain their composition by dissolving the floating materials, including different gasses like SOx and NOx (Salve et al. 2008). Consequently, they are slightly acidic in nature. The geology and anthropogenic activity in the regime determine the types and amounts of various substances available in the atmosphere. These matters get added in varying quantities depending upon the climatic factors in that area. Consequently, their content and concentration vary from place to place and season to season. Rainwater also gets polluted by microbes. The common contaminants are E. coli, Cryptosporidium, Giardia, Campylobacter, Vibrio, Salmonella, Shigella, and Pseudomonas (World Health Organization 2008). So, it is not advisable to drink rainwater without proper treatment. Thus, a filtering unit with an eccentric piping arrangement is proposed to enhance efficacy and ease of maintenance.

Operation

TENG

Figure 3 depicts the power generation process from TENG. Every raindrop experiences air friction on its way from the sky to its destination. As a result, a triboelectric charge gets induced in them (Liu et al. 2019). Usually, the larger droplets attain a positive charge, while the smaller ones acquire a negative charge. For an easy understanding of the generation process, a positively charged raindrop has been considered in Fig. 3. The raindrop goes through the following sequence before coming to a halt.

  • As soon as a droplet lands on the TENG, it spreads on the surface due to acquired kinetic energy.

  • It retracts due to surface tension and rebounds from the point of impact.

  • It re-lands and starts sliding.

Fig. 3
figure 3

Tribo-electricity generation

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So, each droplet induces some surface charge on the hydrophobic material in the liquid–solid area of contact due to the triboelectric effect. A positive charge accumulates on the surface of the PTFE, and an equal amount of negative charge gets induced in the ITO (Xu et al. 2020). A sliding drop bridges the surface charge on the PTFE to the aluminium electrodes. The build-up charge starts to flow through any external load when connected across any electrode and the ITO.

An experiment (Xu et al. 2020) shows that four water drops of 100 µl each, when released from a height of 15 cm in a similar TENG, can instantly light up 400 commercial light-emitting diodes.

Nano-hydro generator

The rain collector in the proposed system has a pipe at its lowest corner. Rain accumulated in the catchment passes through this tube and gathers more potential energy while travelling vertically through the conduit. The flowing stream encounters the blades of a nano-hydro turbine installed towards the bottom of the cylindrical section of the duct and imparts most of its gathered energy to the turbine. The generator coupled to the turbine receives this energy and converts it to electricity.

Water purifier

The nano-hydro generator terminates in a larger diameter pipe whose shape is like a tilted alphabet ‘S’ as shown in Fig. 4. Figure 4 a shows the perspective view of the pipe, and Fig. 4b unveils its elements. The filtering system comprises a sieve, a sediment filter, an acid-neutralizing filter, and a UV disinfectant. The sieve, placed at the intersection of the pipeline and the catchment (indicated in Fig. 1), prevents the intrusion of large-sized solids like leaves and feathers. The other components of the filtering system are housed inside the central linear section, just above the trough segment of the ‘S’ pipe as shown in Fig. 4b. In this module, the first element is a 5- to 20-μm sediment filter layer that averts the suspended contaminants in the rainwater. It is essential to remove these particles; else, the microbes may take shelter behind them when exposed to UV rays. The second element is the acid-neutralizing filter which reduces the acidity in the rainwater. Consumption of acidic water is harmful to health, and hence, it is necessary to neutralize it. The third element is the UV decontaminator which ensures pathogen-free water suitable for drinking purposes. The heart of this unit is the UV lamp; the electromotive force (EMF) generated by the nano-hydro generator will power it.

Fig. 4
figure 4

‘S’ pipe

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The bottom of the droop in the ‘S’ pipe has a waste-collecting chamber with a leak-proof locking system. The vertical positioning of the filter prevents the filtered-out fine waste to settle on the filtering element. Rather, they settle down in the waste collector due to gravity. This arrangement keeps the pipe and filtering unit sediment-free for a longer time and also facilitates easy cleaning. The enlarged diameter of the pipe ensures a larger filtering element and hence, rapid pass-through of collected water. This arrangement aids the maintenance of the flow speed required for generation from the nano-hydro generator. The filtered water is collected and stored in a storage tank for further use.

Purification of drinking water

The filtering unit will provide adequate clean water for drinking purposes. UV rays will destroy the multiplying ability of the microbes rather than killing them and thus disinfect the water. Zewde et al. (2020) and the Professional Geologist (PG) of Water Research Center (Oram 2020) have recorded the time taken by the UV germicidal for making the common pathogens in water dormant. The results are depicted graphically in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5
figure 5

The time requirement for disinfecting water

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It is observed in the figure that the time for deactivating the bacteria and the viruses is considerably lower than for the mould, spores, and algae. The maximum time taken for neutralizing any bacteria (Staphylococcus Albus) is 1.23 s, and any virus (Poliovirus 1) is 0.8 s. On the contrary, the maximum time required for making any mould spores and algae ineffective is 8 and 10 s, respectively. The average time for making the pathogens (bacteria, virus mould spores, and algae) impotent is 0.415, 0.46, 2.463, and 4.475 s, respectively. Most of the rainwater borne germs are bacteria (World Health Organization 2008). It means that the UV filtering element should be designed in such a way that the flowing rainwater may remain exposed to radiation for at least 1.23 s.

Reservoir

Light and warmth support the growth of pathogens in accumulated water (Rainharvesting systems 2020). So, the tank is made of opaque and thermally insulated material. If the water is stored for a longer time, chlorine compounds should be added to keep it germ-free. Carbon can effectively improve the taste, and reduce any smell in the water (Rainharvesting systems 2016). So, a carbon filter may be inserted before the consumer outlet to remove the odour and retain the taste of water.

Experimentation

A simple experimental setup was developed in the lab for the affirmation of the hypothesis. The setup and the methodology are described in the following subsections.

Setup

The power-generating units were developed from scraps and easily available materials in the laboratory. Neither the filtering elements nor the materials for its fabrication were available in the market due to the lockdown (COVID pandemic situation). Hence, it was not possible to incorporate this section in experiments. However, the operation of every part in the filtering module is elaborated in the ‘Water Purifier’ section.

EMF generating elements

Power is generated by two elements i.e., triboelectric generator and nano-hydro generator.

Triboelectric generator

The triboelectric generator was developed using an indium tin oxide (ITO)-coated glass substrate having a dimension of 25 × 15 × 0.1 cm, as shown in Fig. 6a. In the first test, this plate was completely wrapped in triboelectric material — Teflon (brand name of the hydrophobic chemical polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)) plumbing tape for assessment of its behaviour. A white coloured tape was available and used at that time for developing the triboelectric generator (visible in Fig. 6b). The tapes got damaged after the experiment, and hence, a new roll of Teflon plumbing tape was bought. The colour of the new tape was yellow. In the second trial, half of the plate was enclosed with the new PTFE tape (depicted in Fig. 6c) to detect the variation in performance due to changes in PTFE covered area. A grid of white conducting tapes was stuck on the PTFE material (Fig. 6 b and c) to collect the charge in both trials. Generated electricity in both setups flow to the external circuit through the grid of this conducting tape.

Fig. 6
figure 6

Triboelectric generator

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Nano-hydro turbine

The nano-hydro generator was constructed using a heatsink of a computer CPU and a 6 V D.C. motor that operates as a generator (Fig. 7). The heatsink fins serve the purpose of turbine blades, and the motor (Fig. 7a) operates as a generator. A piece of white paper is glued to the inner bottom surface of the heatsink (Fig. 7b) to allow easy and quick attachment of the coupling element to it. The bottom part of a one-time-use pen is cut equal to the thickness of the heatsink (shown in Fig. 7c). It is then affixed to the turbine using hot glue (Fig. 7d) for coupling the generator. Ultimately, they are coupled across the lid of a bucket (seen in Fig. 7e). The yoke of the generator is stuck to the lid with hot glue so that the turbine-coupled shaft can rotate freely. The generator-turbine assembly is subsequently placed on a cylindrical plastic container having two pipes inserted through the opposite wall (Fig. 7f) to allow the inlet and outlet of water. The mounting is done in such a way that the turbine remains inside the container, while the generator stays outside for easy access to generated electricity. The intersection of the container rim and the generator-turbine assembly-mounted bucket lid is sealed using hot glue to prevent leakage of water. The finished setup is shown in Fig. 7g.

Fig. 7
figure 7

Nano-hydro generator

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Methodology

The experiment was conducted twice by varying three parameters — the height from which the droplets were released, the flow rate of dripping water (artificial rain), and the PTFE-covered area of the glass plate in the tribo-generator. The variation of height and water discharge rate was similar in each trial, but the area covered by the PTFE was different. Rain was the primary requirement for the experiment. So, a rain simulator was developed by punching twenty holes in the bottom of a one-litre beverage bottle. The simulator initially was held 8 cm above the tribo-generator. The height was increased by 8 cm for each subsequent set of measurements. It was essential to know the amount of rain falling per unit of time and the rate of water flowing through the nano-hydro generator. Therefore, 1 L of water (artificial rain) was allowed to pass through the holes of the simulator. The intensity was controlled by covering and exposing the apertures. It took 37.45 s to completely vacate the bottle when all the holes were open, while it took 73.41 s when half were blocked. The flow rate was calculated by Eq. (1). For twenty and ten holes, it was 26.70 and 13.62 ml/s, respectively.

$$Flow\;rate=Total\;amount\;of\;water\;flowed\;/\;Time\;taken$$
(1)

The artificial rain during the experiment fell on the tribo-generator and collect in a box (representing the rain collector) at some height on a stool (representing a roof). A pipe connected between the lowest corner of the box and the chamber containing the nano-hydro generator provided a pathway to the accumulated rain. Collected water hit the blades of the generator while flowing through the tube and imparted their energy for power generation. A separate pipe connected the same unit to another box representing the storage tank for drinking water. Figure 8 presents a moment captured during the experiment.

Fig. 8
figure 8

Execution of experiment

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The economic and environmental analysis of the system is evaluated using the following equations

$${\mathrm{CO}}_{2}={C}_{m}\times \frac{44}{12}$$
(2)
$${\mathrm{H}}_{2}\mathrm{O}={H}_{m}\times \frac{18}{2}$$
(3)
$${\mathrm{SO}}_{2}={S}_{m}\times \frac{64}{32}$$
(4)
$${\mathrm{N}}_{2}\mathrm{O}={N}_{m}\times \frac{44}{14}$$
(5)

where ‘Cm’, ‘Hm’, ‘Sm’, and ‘Nm’ are the masses of carbon, hydrogen, sulphur, and nitrogen present in the combusted fuel, respectively.

Results and discussions

The results are analysed in the following sub-sections.

Experimental result

Triboelectricity

Generation

Figure 9 displays the variation in generated EMF when the Teflon tape covers the half portion and entire hydrophobic plate of the triboelectric generator.

Fig. 9
figure 9

EMF generation by the Triboelectric unit

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The bars represent the results obtained from the experiment with the completely laminated plate. It shows that EMF increases with increment in head and outflow of rainwater. The generation at high and low flow rates were 105 and 29.2 mV when the rain simulator was 8 cm above the tribo-generator, whereas at 96 cm, it increased to 189 and 67.9 mV, respectively. It is apparent from the figure that the increment in the generation is gradual for a low discharge rate. The triboelectric generator produced EMF averagely of 152.73 and 52.71 mV for the high and low-intensity rain, respectively.

The experiment was repeated with half a portion of the hydrophobic plate coated with PTFE material. The line with markers in Fig. 9 corresponds to the outcome of that trial. It is noticed in the figure that the output is almost half of the EMF generated during the fully covered plate. The highest EMF (95 mv) is produced when high flow-rate water is dropped from the maximum height. On the contrary, only 51.3 mV is obtained when dripped from the closest position, and on average, 75.8 mV is achieved at high-intensity rain. In the case of slow-moving water, the average yield is 27.325 mV with the highest and lowest value of 34 and 20.4 mV, respectively.

Incremental rate

Figure 10 portrays the incremental rate in the generation when the entire plate is enclosed with Teflon.

Fig. 10
figure 10

Incremental rate of generation with the fully covered hydrophobic element

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Before the initial reading, there was no build-up charge as the electrodes were dry and electrically neutral. Consequently, EMF generation was minimum. In the subsequent trials, the electrodes were moist due to the previous measurements and retained some charge. Thus, the incremental rate between the second and third measurements is highest, and the difference diminished gradually for both high and low rain. The variation between the consecutive measurements at 8 cm, 16 cm, and 24 cm for low intense rain is 6.1 mV (20.58%) and 10.59 (30.08%), whereas it is 3 mV (2.85%) and 15.2 (14.07%) for high-intensity rain. So, the growth rate is more for low-intensity rain than the high-intensity. The average rate of EMF escalation for moderate and acute rainfall is 8.28 and 5.60%, respectively. It can be predicted from the graph pattern that the increment in the generation will become steady after a certain number of tests, i.e., a linear relationship will be established between the increment and the falling height. As a result, the rate of increment will become zero.

The enhancement rate of the generation when the plate is half-covered with PTFE is depicted in Fig. 11.

Fig. 11
figure 11

Incremental rate of generation with the half-covered hydrophobic element

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A dissimilar pattern is noticed between the results of the first three observations of the full and half-covered modules. In the case of the completely encapsulated plate, the outcomes of those trials for the drizzles are higher than the yield from the shower, whereas the opposite is true in the case of the half-covered module. A difference of 1.043% between the average incremental rate of intense (5.813%) and mild rainfall (4.770%) is noticed in the result. It is visible in the figure that fluctuations and magnitude are decaying towards the end, like the results in Fig. 10.

Hydroelectricity

The amount of water passing per unit of time through the nano-hydro generator was calculated similarly to the previous process. One litre of water took 18.25 S to flow through the pipe and the generator. Thus, 54.79 ml of collected water passed through it in a second. The variation in generation with the change in flow rate is depicted in Fig. 12.

Fig. 12
figure 12

The output of the nano-hydro generator

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It is observed in the figure that the output is proportional to the water passing through the generator. At a discharge of 44.01 ml/s, the attained EMF is 40.3 mV, whereas at a maximum flow (54.79 ml/s), obtained EMF is 102.6 mV. At an average flow rate of 49.05 ml/s, the observed EMF is 71.8 mV.

Economic and environmental benefit analysis

The present study deal with EMF rather than power. So, the peak power density (50.1W/m2) obtained by Xu et al. (2020) has been used for the analysis of possible economic and environmental benefits. As per the result, the maximum power that can be generated from a typical rooftop area of 100 m2 is 5.01 kW. It means that a steady rain of 1 h can yield 5.01 kWh of energy.

India receives rainfall (1083 mm) close to the mean global precipitation (1168.38 mm) per year (World Bank 2012). Therefore, the evaluation of economic and environmental benefits at this place is quite admissible. In addition, other factors like power consumption, usage of fuels for power generation, population, and economy also advocate consideration of this place for the analysis.

The monsoon carries most of the rain in the country that lasts from June to September (Halpert and Bell 2000). Considering average rainfall of 1 h per day during this span yield 122 h of precipitation which can cause 611.22 kWh of energy (Appendix). For generating at-par electricity by a coal-based thermal power plant, 625.86 kg of fuel costing Rs. 657.06 is required (Appendix). Its combustion will pollute the environment by emanating GHGs, primarily CO2, H2O, SO2, and N2O. Total 1128.39 kg gas containing 943.73 kg CO2, 5.13 kg SO2, 24 kg N2O, and 155.52 kg H2O will be liberated. The emission is calculated using the molecular mass method by Eqs. (2), (3), (4), and (5) (Acharya et al. 2020). This expenditure and pollution can be avoided by implementing the proposed system.

Conclusion

An integrated rainwater harvesting system is proposed to address three pressing issues (renewable power generation, drinking water scarcity, and environmental pollution) of the present world. The arrangement is a standalone system that generates electricity from the dropping effect and flowing properties of rainwater. The contaminants, acidity, and pathogens will be removed by different sections of the filtering unit in the scheme. The unique structure of the pipeline will defy the deposition of sediments and will keep its inner surface clean. Since the number of components used is minimum, the system is simple and easy to implement and operate. A reduced number of elements also contribute to minimizing the overall cost.

A prototype of the proposed system (excluding the filtration unit) was developed and experimented in the laboratory. The performance of the generating system due to variation in rain intensity, head of fall, and the area of the hydrophobic element was determined. It was found that in comparison to the size of the triboelectric generator, a significant amount of EMF (185.9 mV) was available during high-intensity rain. The flowing accrued water also generated 71.8 mV. Hence, it can be concluded that the implementation of this integrated system can substantially limit the major issues regarding electricity, pollution, and drinking water. The system will avail economic benefits as well.