Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Assessment and mapping of total suspended particulate and soil quality around brick kilns and occupational health issues among brick kilns workers in Pakistan

  • Research Article
  • Published:
Environmental Science and Pollution Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Brick kilns constitute one of the major sources of environmental degradation in Pakistan. The present study was conducted to determine the soil quality and total suspended particulates (TSPs) around the brick kilns and assess the health effects on brick kiln workers. Four brick kilns were selected, two each at Sheikhupura and Pattoki city. The soil quality was assessed by analyzing pH, electrical conductivity, moisture content, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium content, and heavy metal concentration while TSPs were measured by hand-held Microdust Pro Real time monitor. Average TSP concentration around brick kilns at Sheikhupura and Pattoki ranged between 1100 and 1200 µg/m3 and between 550 and 600 µg/m3 respectively which exceeded the Punjab Ambient Air Standards. The soil was slightly acidic (Sheikhupura: average pH = 6.41; Pattoki: average pH = 6.6) while all other analyzed parameters, except heavy metals, were lower than the required FAO Standards for good quality agriculture soil. Heavy metal accumulation in soil samples followed the general order zinc (Zn) > chromium (Cr) > nickel (Ni) > manganese (Mn) > cadmium (Cd) > copper (Cu). For assessment of occupational health and safety issues, all 440 brick kiln workers from the study areas were interviewed. Mostly, brick kiln workers suffered from chronic back pain (84%), skin issues (80.5%), dry cough (72.9%), common cold (46.1%), and shortness of breath (17.1%). The vulnerability risk varied with the nature of the work as workers engaged in brick baking were more vulnerable to respiratory issues than were those in molding task. The study concludes that brick kilns are a source of increased TSP, deteriorated surrounding soil quality, and impaired worker health. It is necessary to regulate these activities and implement requisite health and safety measures.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5

Similar content being viewed by others

Availability of data and materials

All relevant data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this article. The raw data of the study are available upon request from the corresponding author.

References

  • Achakzai K, Khalid S, Bibi A (2017) Determination of heavy metals in agricultural soil adjacent to functional brick kilns: a case study of Rawalpindi. Sci Technol Dev 34(3):122–129

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abbas A, Sajid M, Iftikhar M, Khoja A, Ahmad M, Shahid M, Ullah K (2021) Assessment of long-term energy and environmental impacts of the cleaner technologies for brick production. Energy Rep 7:7157–7169

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmad I, Ahmad HR, Farooqi ZU, Sabir M, Rizwan M, Maqsood MA (2022) Apportionment of heavy metals in a soil–water-plant system via brick kiln emissions in heavily industrialized city of Pakistan. Environ Sci Pollut Res 21:1

    Google Scholar 

  • Alam K, Rahman N, Khan HU, Haq BS, Rahman S (2015) Particulate matter and its source apportionment in Peshawar, Northern Pakistan. Aerosol and Air Quality Research 15(2):634–647

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ali H, Khan E, Ilahi I (2019) Environmental chemistry and ecotoxicology of hazardous heavy metals: environmental persistence, toxicity, and bioaccumulation. Journal of Chemistry 1-14.https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/6730305

  • Ali W, Javid A, Hussain A, Bukhari SM (2017) Public attitude towards amphibian and reptiles in district Kasur, Punjab. Pakistan J Zoology 32(2):173–178

    Google Scholar 

  • Amadi CN, Igweze ZN, Orisakwe OE (2017) Heavy metals in miscarriages and stillbirths in developing nations. Middle East Fertil Soc J 22:91–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mefs.2017.03.003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berumen-Rodríguez AA, Díaz de León-Martínez L, Zamora-Mendoza BN, Orta-Arellanos H, Saldaña-Villanueva K, Barrera-López V, Gómez-Gómez A, Pérez-Vázquez FJ, Díaz-Barriga F, Flores-Ramírez R (2021) Evaluation of respiratory function and biomarkers of exposure to mixtures of pollutants in brick-kilns workers from a marginalized urban area in Mexico. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28(47):67833–67842

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bisht G, Nepune S (2015) Impact of brick kiln emissions on soil quality of agricultural fields in the vicinity of selected Bhakhtapur area of Nepal. Applied and Environmental Soil Sciences 1–8

  • CCAC Secretariat (2018) Pakistan moves toward environmentally friendly and cost-effective brick kilns. https://www.ccacoalition.org/en/news/pakistan-moves-toward-environmentally-friendly-and-cost-effective-brick-kilns

  • David M, Afzal M, Shoaib M, Aman F, Cloete KJ, Turi N, Jahan S (2020) Study of occupational exposure to brick kiln emissions on heavy metal burden, biochemical profile, cortisol level and reproductive health risks among female workers at Rawat. Pakistan Environ Sci Pollut Res 27(35):44073–44088

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dey S, Dey M (2017) Soil fertility loss and heavy metal accumulation in and around functional brick kilns in Cachar district, Assam, India: a multivariate analysis. Journal of Bio Innovation 6(5):768–781

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eli A, Li J, Baral P, Saikawa E (2020) Dirty stacks, high stakes: an overview of brick sector in South Asia. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/33727

  • Ghrefat HA, Yusuf N, Jamarh A, Nazzal J (2011) Fractionation and risk assessment of heavy metals in soil samples collected along Zerqa River, Jordan. Environ Earth Sci 66(1):199–208. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-011-1222-6

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gozdowski D, Stepien M, Samborski S, Dobers ES, Szatytowicz J, Chormanski J (2015) Prediction accuracy of selected spatial interpolation methods for soil texture at farm field scale. J Soil Sci Plant Nutr 15(3):639–650. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-95162015005000033

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guttikunda S (2009) Impact analysis of brick kilns on air quality in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Dhaka: Urban Emission. http://indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/content/276584/impact-analysis-of-brick-kilns-on-the-air-quality-in-dhaka-bangladesh/

  • Hussain B, Naqvi SAA, Anwar S, Shah SAR, Hassan RH, ul, Shah AA, (2021) Zig-zag technology adoption behavior among brick kiln owners in Pakistan. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28(33):45168–45182. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-13837-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Interim Scientific Advisory Group (ISAG) (2000) Quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) program for soil and vegetation monitoring in East Asia. https://www.eanet.asia/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/qaqcsv.pdf

  • Irshad N, Sidra S, Javid A, Ashraf S, Ullah MR, Zafar R (2019) An investigation into the accumulation of air borne trace metals in the lungs of common Myna Acridotheres tristis and Bank Myna Acridotheres ginginianus captured from urban and semi urban areas of Lahore and Pattoki, Pakistan. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 103(5):750–755. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-019-02717-8

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ishaq M, Khan MA, Jan FA, Ahmad I (2010) Heavy metals in brick kiln located area using atomic absorption spectrophotometer: a case study from the city of Peshawar. Pakistan Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 166(1):409–420

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Islam MS, Mamun SA, Rana S, Tusher TR (2015) The impact of brick kiln operation to the degradation of topsoil quality of agricultural land. Agrivita 37(3): 204–209. https://media.neliti.com/media/publications/54679-the-impact-of-brick-kiln-operation-to-th-fdf8f289.pdf

  • Ismail M, Muhammad D, Khan FU, Munsif F (2013) Effect of brick kilns emissions on heavy metal content of contagious soil and plants. Journal of Agriculture 28(3):403–409. https://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=PK2013000406

  • Jahan S, Falah S, Ullah H, Ullah A, Rauf N (2016) Antioxidant enzymes status and reproductive health of adult male workers exposed to brick kiln pollutants in Pakistan. Environ Sci Pollut Res 23(13):12932–12940. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-6454-2

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Khan MW, Ali Y, Felice FD, Salman A, Petrillo A (2019) Impact of brick kilns industry on environment and human health in Pakistan. Science of Total Environment 678:383–389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.04.369

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kumar K, Kumar A (2020) Sustainable use and applications of brick kiln coal fly ash in agriculture sector for promotion of legume productivity. Plant Archives 20(2):3571–3579

    Google Scholar 

  • Najmee (2016) Punjab Environmental Quality Standards for Ambient Air Standards.

  • Otari M, Dabiri R (2015) Geochemical and environmental assessment of heavy metals in soils and sediments of Forumad Chromite mine, NE of Iran. J Min Environ 6 (2):251–261. https://doi.org/10.22044/jme.2015.475

  • Pakistan Institute of Labour Education and Research (2004) Unfree labour in Pakistan: work, debt and bondage in brick kilns.

  • Pang S, T-xuan Li, Wang Y-dong Yu, H-ying LX (2009) Spatial interpolation and sample size optimization for soil copper (CU) investigation in cropland soil at county scale using Cokriging. Agric Sci China 8(11):1369–1377. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1671-2927(08)60349-1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pariyar SK, Das T, Ferdous T (2013) Environment & health impact for brick kilns in Kathmandu Valley. Int J Sci Technol 2(5):184–187

    Google Scholar 

  • Patra DK, Pradhan C, Patra HK (2018) An in situ study of growth of Lemongrass Cymbopogon flexuosus (Nees ex Steud.) W. Watson on varying concentration of chromium (Cr+6) on soil and its bioaccumulation: perspectives on phytoremediation potential and phytostabilisation of chromium toxicity. Chemosphere 193:793–799. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.11.062

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rajonee AA, Uddin MdJ (2018) Changes in soil properties with distance in brick kiln areas around Barisal. Open Journal of Soil Science 8:118–128. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojss.2018.83009

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rauf A, Shakir S, Ncube A, Abd-ur-Rehman H, Janjua A, Khanum S, Khoja A (2022) Prospects towards sustainability: a comparative study to evaluate the environmental performance of brick making kilns in Pakistan. Environ Impact Assess Rev 94:106746. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2022.106746

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ravankhah N, Mirzaei R, Masoum S (2017) Determination of heavy metals in surface soils around the brick kilns in an arid region, Iran. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 176:91–99

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Raza SMH, Mahmood SA, Alvi FS, Atif M, Yahya S, Ahmad J, Hanif A (2016) Spatiotemporal monitoring of urban sprawl and its impact assessment in district Sheikhupura through remote and GIS using satellite images from 1976–2014. Sci Int (lahore) 28(2):1583–1588

    Google Scholar 

  • Saha MK, Ahmed SJ, Sheikh AH, Mostafa MG (2021a) Impacts of brick kilns on environment around kiln areas of Bangladesh. Jordan Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences 12(3):241–253

    Google Scholar 

  • Saha MK, Sarkar RR, Ahmed SJ, Sheikh AH, Mostafa MG (2021b) Impacts of brick kiln emission on agricultural soil around brick kiln areas. Nepal J Environ Sci 9(1):1–10. https://doi.org/10.3126/njes.v9i1.34918

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sanjel S, Thygerson SM, Khanal SN, Joshi SK (2016a) Environmental and occupational pollutants and their effects on health among brick kiln workers. Open J Saf Sci Technol 6:81–98

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sanjel S, Khanal SN, Thygerson SM, Khanal K, Pun Z, Tamang S, Joshi SK (2016b) Airborne particulate matter and health condition in brick kiln workers in Kathmandu Valley. Nepal Kathmandu Univ Med J 54(2):159–166

    Google Scholar 

  • Sanjel S, Khanal SN, Thygerson SM, Carter WS, Johnston JD, Joshi SK (2017) Respiratory symptoms and illnesses related to the concentration of airborne particulate matter among brick kiln workers in Kathmandu valley, Nepal. Annals of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 29(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40557-017-0165-0

  • Shahraiyni HT, Shahsavani D, Sargazi S, Habibi-Nokhandan M (2015) Evaluation of MARS for the spatial distribution modeling of carbon monoxide in an urban area. Atmos Pollut Res 6(4):581–588. https://doi.org/10.5094/APR.2015.065

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shaikh S, Nafees AA, Khetpal V (2012) Respiratory symptoms and illness among brick kiln workers; a cross sectional study from rural districts of Pakistan. BMC Public Health 12:999. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-999

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sharif F, Nasim S (2019) To adopt, or not to adopt, why is the question: an environmental and economic case for zigzag kilns. Lahore: Consortium for Development Policy Research. https://cdpr.org.pk/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/010819-SN-IGC-Brick-Kiln-Project.pdf

  • Sheta S, El-Laithy N (2015) Brick kiln industry and workers chronic respiratory health problems in MIT Ghamr District, Dakahlia Governorate. Egyptian Journal of Occupational Medicine 39(1):37–51. https://ejom.journals.ekb.eg/article_809.html

  • Sikder A, Khanom S, Hossain M, Parveen Z (2016a) Accumulation of Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn and Pb due to brick manufacturing in agricultutral soils and plants. Dhaka University Journal of Biological Sciences 25(1):75–81

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sikder AHF, Begum K, Parveen Z, Hossain MF (2016b) Assessment of macro and micro nutrients around brick kilns agricultural environment. Inf Process Agric 3(1):61–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inpa.2016.02.001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skinder BM (2014) Brick kilns: cause of atmospheric pollution. Journal of Pollution Effects & Control 02(02):1–7. https://doi.org/10.4172/2375-4397.1000112

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sobhanardakani S (2017) Potential health risk assessment of heavy metals via consumption of caviar of Persian sturgeon. Mar Pollut Bull 123(1–2):34–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.09.033

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sobhanardakani S (2018a) Ecological and human health risk assessment of heavy metal content of atmospheric dry deposition, a case study: Kermanshah, Iran. Biol Trace Elem Res 187(2):602–610. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-018-1383-1

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sobhanardakani S (2018b) Human health risk assessment of Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn through consumption of raw and pasteurized cow’s milk. Iran J Public Health 47(8):1172–1180

    Google Scholar 

  • Suwal GB (2018) Impact of brick kilns’ emission on soil quality of agricultural fields in the vicinity of selected Bhaktapur Area. Journal of Science and Engineering 5:34–42. https://doi.org/10.3126/jsce.v5i0.22370

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tandon S, Gupta S, Singh S, Kumar A (2017) Respiratory abnormalities among occupationally exposed, non-smoking brick kiln workers from Punjab, India. Int J Occup Environ Med 8(3):166–173. https://doi.org/10.15171/ijoem.2017.1036

  • Tchounwou PB, Yedjou CG, Patlolla AK, Sutton DJ (2012) Heavy Metal Toxicity and the Environment. In: Luch, A. (eds) Experientia Supplementum. Molecular, Clinical and Environmental Toxicology 101: 133–164. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7643-8340-4_6

  • Thakur R, Baghel S (2012) Training program on advance in agro-technologies for improving soil, plant and atmosphere systems. Jabalpur: Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya

  • The Punjab Portal: District Sheikhupura, Government of the Punjab. https://sheikhupura.punjab.gov.pk/climate, Retrieved November 24, 2021

  • Thygerson SM, Sanjel S, Johnson S (2016) Occupational and environmental health hazards in the brick manufacturing industry in Kathmandu Valley. Nepal Occup Med Health Aff 4:248. https://doi.org/10.4172/2329-6879.1000248

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2013) Quality Assurance Handbook for Air Pollution Measurement Systems Volume II, Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Program.

  • Valente DSM, de Queiroz DM, Pinto Fde A, deC., Santos N T, Santos FL (2012) The relationship between apparent soil electrical conductivity and soil properties. Revista Ciência Agronômica 43(4):683–690. https://doi.org/10.1590/s1806-66902012000400009

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wyszkowski M, Brodowska MS (2020) Content of trace elements in soil fertilized with potassium and nitrogen. Agriculture 10(9):398. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture10090398

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yunshuo L, Zhen L, Shilei L, Heqing H, Jiapei H (2020) Detection of soil total nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium content based on the spectral information of citrus canopy. Am J Biochem Biotechnol 16(2):177–183. https://doi.org/10.3844/ajbbsp.2020.177.183

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang Q, Han G, Liu M, Li X, Wang L, Liang B (2019) Distribution and contamination assessment of soil heavy metals in the Jiulongjiang River Catchment, Southeast China. Int J Environ Res Public Health 16(23):4674. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16234674

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang XY, Lin FF, Wong MTF, Feng XL, Wang K (2008) Identification of soil heavy metal sources from anthropogenic activities and pollution assessment of Fuyang County China. Environ Monit Assess 154(1–4):439–449. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-008-0410-7

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Environmental Sciences, Kinnaird College for Women, 93, Jail Road, Lahore, 54000, Pakistan

    Almas Hamid, Aiman Riaz & Faiza Noor

  2. Government College University, Lahore, Pakistan

    Iqra Mazhar

Authors
  1. Almas Hamid
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Aiman Riaz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Faiza Noor
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Iqra Mazhar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

Almas Hamid: conceptualization and design of study, investigation, supervision, data analysis, writing—original draft, review, editing and final manuscript. Aiman Riaz and Faiza Noor: data collection, investigation/formal analysis, writing—formatting draft. Iqra Mazhar: GIS mapping and analysis, manuscript preparation and editing.

All the authors have read and approved the final manuscript/version to be published.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Almas Hamid.

Ethics declarations

Consent to participate

All the participants were informed of the objectives of the study, gave informed consent and participated willingly in the study.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Responsible Editor: Lotfi Aleya

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary file1 (DOCX 335 KB)

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Hamid, A., Riaz, A., Noor, F. et al. Assessment and mapping of total suspended particulate and soil quality around brick kilns and occupational health issues among brick kilns workers in Pakistan. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30, 3335–3350 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-22428-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-22428-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation