Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Does environmental sustainability affect the renewable energy consumption? Nexus among trade openness, CO2 emissions, income inequality, renewable energy, and economic growth in OECD countries

  • Research Article
  • Published:
Environmental Science and Pollution Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract 

This study investigates the impact of carbon emissions, real oil prices, income inequality, economic growth, and trade openness on renewable energy consumption (REC) in twenty-three (23) OECD economies. The study employs the Westerlund panel cointegration technique to verify the existence of long-run equilibrium and the Augmented Mean Group (AMG) estimator to assess the long-run relationship between the variables, which allows for slope heterogeneity and cross-sectional dependency. Moreover, the panel causality test of Dumitrescu and Hurlin (DH) is utilized to gauge the causal relationship between the variables. The findings of our study reveal that REC is positively related to economic growth, real oil prices, income inequality, and trade openness, but negatively related to CO2 emissions in OECD countries. In addition, there is one-way causality from GDP per capita to renewable energy consumption and a bidirectional causality between income inequality and REC. Furthermore, the results indicate that OECD policymakers and governments should regard foreign trade as a “clean energy fostering mechanism” while developing energy demand policies that are environmentally friendly.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

The data is available on request from the corresponding author.

References 

  • Aguirre M, Ibikunle G (2014) Determinants of renewable energy growth: a global sample analysis. Energy Policy 69:374–384

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmad M, Zhao ZY (2018) Empirics on linkages among industrialization, urbanization, energy consumption, CO2 emissions and economic growth: a heterogeneous panel study of China. Environ Sci Pollut Res 25(30):30617–30632

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Akram R, Chen F, Khalid F, Ye Z, Majeed MT (2020) Heterogeneous effects of energy efficiency and renewable energy on carbon emissions: evidence from developing countries. J Clean Prod 247:119122

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alam MM, Murad MW (2020) The impacts of economic growth, trade openness and technological progress on renewable energy use in organization for economic co-operation and development countries. Renewable Energy 145:382–390

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Mulali U, Ozturk I, Solarin SA (2016) Investigating the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis in seven regions: the role of renewable energy. Ecol Ind 67:267–282

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Altarhouni A, Danju D, Samour A (2021) Insurance market development, energy consumption, and Turkey’s CO2 emissions New Perspectives from a Bootstrap ARDL Test. Energies 14(23):7830

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anser, M. K., Usman, M., Sharif, M., Bashir, S., Shabbir, M. S., Yahya Khan, G., & Lopez, L. B. (2021). The dynamic impact of renewable energy sources on environmental economic growth: evidence from selected Asian economies. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 1–13.

  • Apergis N (2015) Does renewables production affect income inequality? Evidence from an international panel of countries. Appl Econ Lett 22(11):865–868

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Apergis N, Payne JE (2015) Renewable energy, output, carbon dioxide emissions, and oil prices: evidence from South America. Energy Sources Part B 10(3):281–287

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arslan, Z., Kausar, S., Kannaiah, D., Shabbir, M. S., Khan, G. Y., & Zamir, A. (2021). The mediating role of green creativity and the moderating role of green mindfulness in the relationship among clean environment, clean production, and sustainable growth. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 1–15

  • Asongu SA, Odhiambo NM (2021) Inequality, finance and renewable energy consumption in Sub-Saharan Africa. Renewable Energy 165:678–688

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Balsalobre-Lorente D, Gokmenoglu KK, Taspinar N, Cantos-Cantos JM (2019) An approach to the pollution haven and pollution halo hypotheses in MINT countries. Environ Sci Pollut Res 26(22):23010–23026

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barro, R. J. (1999). Inequality, growth, and investment (No. w7038). NBER Working Paper Series. Massachusetts.

  • Belaïd F, Zrelli MH (2019) Renewable and non-renewable electricity consumption, environmental degradation and economic development: evidence from Mediterranean countries. Energy Policy 133:110929

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bhattacharya M, Paramati SR, Ozturk I, Bhattacharya S (2016) The effect of renewable energy consumption on economic growth: evidence from top 38 countries. Appl Energy 162:733–741

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bond, S., & Eberhardt, M. (2013). Accounting for unobserved heterogeneity in panel time series models. University of Oxford, 1–11.

  • Brini R, Amara M, Jemmali H (2017) Renewable energy consumption, International trade, oil price and economic growth inter-linkages: the case of Tunisia. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 76:620–627

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brunnschweiler, C. N. (2010). Finance for renewable energy: an empirical analysis of developing and transition economies. Environment and development economics, 241–274.

  • Cao, X., Kannaiah, D., Ye, L., Khan, J., Shabbir, M. S., Bilal, K., & Tabash, M. I. (2022). Does sustainable environmental agenda matter in the era of globalization? The relationship among financial development, energy consumption, and sustainable environmental-economic growth. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 1–11.

  • Chen C, Pinar M, Stengos T (2020) Renewable energy consumption and economic growth nexus: evidence from a threshold model. Energy Policy 139:111295

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen C, Pinar M, Stengos T (2021) Determinants of renewable energy consumption: importance of democratic institutions. Renewable Energy 179:75–83

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen J, Su F, Jain V, Salman A, Tabash MI, Haddad AM, Shabbir MS (2022) Does renewable energy matter to achieve sustainable development goals? The impact of renewable energy strategies on sustainable economic growth. Front Energy Res 10:829252

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cheng C, Ren X, Wang Z, Yan C (2019) Heterogeneous impacts of renewable energy and environmental patents on CO2 emission-evidence from the BRIICS. Sci Total Environ 668:1328–1338

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cheon A, Urpelainen J (2012) Oil prices and energy technology innovation: an empirical analysis. Glob Environ Chang 22(2):407–417

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Copeland BR (2005) Policy endogeneity and the effects of trade on the environment. Agric Res Econ Rev 34(1203-2016–95320):1–15

    Google Scholar 

  • Dai, Z., Sadiq, M., Kannaiah, D., Khan, N., Shabbir, M. S., Bilal, K., & Tabash, M. I. (2022). The dynamic impacts of environmental-health and MDR-TB diseases and their influence on environmental sustainability at Chinese hospitals. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 1–11.

  • Destek MA, Aslan A (2020) Disaggregated renewable energy consumption and environmental pollution nexus in G-7 countries. Renewable Energy 151:1298–1306

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Destek MA, Sinha A (2020) Renewable, non-renewable energy consumption, economic growth, trade openness and ecological footprint: evidence from organisation for economic Co-operation and development countries. J Clean Prod 242:118537

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dong K, Hochman G, Zhang Y, Sun R, Li H, Liao H (2018) CO2 emissions, economic and population growth, and renewable energy: empirical evidence across regions. Energy Economics 75:180–192

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dumitrescu EI, Hurlin C (2012) Testing for Granger non-causality in heterogeneous panels. Econ Model 29(4):1450–1460

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eberhardt, M., & Bond, S. (2009). Cross-section dependence in nonstationary panel models: a novel estimator.

  • Fan W, Hao Y (2020) An empirical research on the relationship amongst renewable energy consumption, economic growth and foreign direct investment in China. Renewable Energy 146:598–609

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ge, M., Kannaiah, D., Li, J., Khan, N., Shabbir, M. S., Bilal, K., & Tabash, M. I. (2022). Does foreign private investment affect the clean industrial environment? Nexus among foreign private investment, CO2 emissions, energy consumption, trade openness, and sustainable economic growth. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 1–8.

  • Geller H, Harrington P, Rosenfeld AH, Tanishima S, Unander F (2006) Polices for increasing energy efficiency: thirty years of experience in OECD countries. Energy Policy 34(5):556–573

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ghazouani A, Jebli MB, Shahzad U (2021) Impacts of environmental taxes and technologies on greenhouse gas emissions: contextual evidence from leading emitter European countries. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28(18):22758–22767

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Godil DI, Yu Z, Sharif A, Usman R, Khan SAR (2021) Investigate the role of technology innovation and renewable energy in reducing transport sector CO2 emission in China: a path toward sustainable development. Sustain Dev 29(4):694–707

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Golley J, Meng X (2012) Income inequality and carbon dioxide emissions: the case of Chinese urban households. Energy Economics 34(6):1864–1872

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gourevitch P (1978) The second image reversed: the international sources of domestic politics. Int Organ 32(4):881–912

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guo Y, Yu C, Zhang H, Cheng H (2021) Asymmetric between oil prices and renewable energy consumption in the G7 countries. Energy 226:120319

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hsiao CYL, Lin W, Wei X, Yan G, Li S, Sheng N (2019) The impact of international oil prices on the stock price fluctuations of China’s renewable energy enterprises. Energies 12(24):4630

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • IEA. International Energy Agency, world energy outlook (2015). https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/WEO2015.pdf

  • IEA. International Energy Agency, world energy outlook (2020). https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-outlook-2020

  • Ivanovski K, Hailemariam A, Smyth R (2021) The effect of renewable and non-renewable energy consumption on economic growth: non-parametric evidence. J Clean Prod 286:124956

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jaforullah M, King A (2015) Does the use of renewable energy sources mitigate CO2 emissions? A reassessment of the US evidence. Energy Economics 49:711–717

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jardón A, Kuik O, Tol RS (2017) Economic growth and carbon dioxide emissions: an analysis of Latin America and the Caribbean. Atmósfera 30(2):87–100

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jorgenson AK (2015) Inequality and the carbon intensity of human well-being. J Environ Stud Sci 5(3):277–282

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jun W, Mughal N, Zhao J, Shabbir MS, Niedbała G, Jain V, Anwar A (2021) Does globalization matter for environmental degradation? Nexus among energy consumption, economic growth, and carbon dioxide emission. Energy Policy 153:112230

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karacan R, Mukhtarov S, Barış İ, İşleyen A, Yardımcı ME (2021) The impact of oil price on transition toward renewable energy consumption? Evidence from Russia Energies 14(10):2947

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Khan, M. B., Saleem, H., Shabbir, M. S., &Huobao, X. (2021). The effects of globalization, energy consumption and economic growth on carbon dioxide emissions in South Asian countries. Energy & Environment, 0958305X20986896.

  • Kyritsis, E., & Serletis, A. (2019). Oil prices and the renewable energy sector. The Energy Journal, 40 (The New Era of Energy Transition).

  • Laurent, E. (2015). Social-Ecology: exploring the missing link in sustainable development.

  • Liu Y, Sharma P, Jain V, Shukla A, Shabbir MS, Tabash MI, Chawla C (2022) The relationship among oil prices volatility, inflation rate, and sustainable economic growth: evidence from top oil importer and exporter countries. Resour Policy 77:102674

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, Y., Cao, D., Cao, X., Jain, V., Chawla, C., Shabbir, M. S., & Ramos-Meza, C. S. (2022b). The effects of MDR-TB treatment regimens through socioeconomic and spatial characteristics on environmental-health outcomes: evidence from Chinese hospitals. Energy & Environment, 0958305X221079425

  • Mbarek MB, Saidi K, Rahman MM (2018) Renewable and non-renewable energy consumption, environmental degradation and economic growth in Tunisia. Qual Quant 52(3):1105–1119

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McGee JA, Greiner PT (2019) Renewable energy injustice: the socio-environmental implications of renewable energy consumption. Energy Res Soc Sci 56:101214

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mughal N, Arif A, Jain V, Chupradit S, Shabbir MS, Ramos-Meza CS, Zhanbayev R (2022) The role of technological innovation in environmental pollution, energy consumption and sustainable economic growth: evidence from South Asian economies. Energ Strat Rev 39:100745

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muhammad I, Shabbir MS, Saleem S, Bilal K, Ulucak R (2021) Nexus between willingness to pay for renewable energy sources: evidence from Turkey. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28(3):2972–2986

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mukhtarov S, Mikayilov JI, Humbatova S, Muradov V (2020) Do high oil prices obstruct the transition to renewable energy consumption? Sustainability 12(11):4689

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murshed M, Tanha MM (2021) Oil price shocks and renewable energy transition: empirical evidence from net oil-importing South Asian economies. Energy, Ecology and Environment 6(3):183–203

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nawab, T., Raza, S., Shabbir, M. S., Yahya Khan, G., & Bashir, S. (2022). Multidimensional poverty index across districts in Punjab, Pakistan: estimation and rationale to consolidate with SDGs. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 1–25.

  • Nilsson, M. M. (2019). The effect of oil prices on patents in renewable energy: a DTC approach.

  • OECD, 2017. OECD and the sustainable development goals: delivering on universal goals and targets. Available at: http://www.oecd.org/development/sustainabledevelopment-goals.htm.

  • OECD, 2019. Measuring distance to the SDG Targets 2019: an assessment of where OECD countries stand. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.

  • Omri A, Nguyen DK (2014) On the determinants of renewable energy consumption: international evidence. Energy 72:554–560

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Panwar NL, Kaushik SC, Kothari S (2011) Role of renewable energy sources in environmental protection: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 15(3):1513–1524

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pesaran, M. H. (2004). General diagnostic tests for cross-sectional dependence in panels. Empirical Economics, 1–38.

  • Pesaran MH (2007) A simple panel unit root test in the presence of cross-section dependence. J Appl Economet 22(2):265–312

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pesaran MH (2015) Testing weak cross-sectional dependence in large panels. Economet Rev 34(6–10):1089–1117

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • PetroleumBP B (2020) Statistical Review of World Energy. British Petroleum, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Przychodzen W, Przychodzen J (2020) Determinants of renewable energy production in transition economies: a panel data approach. Energy 191:116583

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Qamruzzaman M, Jianguo W (2020) The asymmetric relationship between financial development, trade openness, foreign capital flows, and renewable energy consumption: fresh evidence from panel NARDL investigation. Renewable Energy 159:827–842

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rafiq S, Bloch H, Salim R (2014) Determinants of renewable energy adoption in China and India: a comparative analysis. Appl Econ 46(22):2700–2710

  • Reboredo JC (2015) Is there dependence and systemic risk between oil and renewable energy stock prices? Energy Economics 48:32–45

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sadiq, M., Kannaiah, D., Yahya Khan, G., Shabbir, M. S., Bilal, K., & Zamir, A. (2022). Does sustainable environmental agenda matter? The role of globalization toward energy consumption, economic growth, and carbon dioxide emissions in South Asian countries. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 1–20.

  • Sadorsky P (2009) Renewable energy consumption, CO2 emissions and oil prices in the G7 countries. Energy Economics 31(3):456–462

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saleem, H., Khan, M. B., & Shabbir, M. S. (2019). The role of financial development, energy demand, and technological change in environmental sustainability agenda: evidence from selected Asian countries. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 1–15.

  • Saleem, H., Khan, M. B., Shabbir, M. S., Khan, G. Y., & Usman, M. (2022). Nexus between non-renewable energy production, CO2 emissions, and healthcare spending in OECD economies. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 1–12.

  • Salim RA, Rafiq S (2012) Why do some emerging economies proactively accelerate the adoption of renewable energy? Energy Economics 34(4):1051–1057

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Samour A, Baskaya MM, Tursoy T (2022) The impact of financial development and FDI on renewable energy in the UAE: a path towards sustainable development. Sustainability 14(3):1208

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Samour, A., & Pata, U. K. (2022). The impact of the US interest rate and oil prices on renewable energy in Turkey: a bootstrap ARDL approach. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 1–10.

  • Samour, A., Moyo, D., & Tursoy, T. (2022b). Renewable energy, banking sector development, and carbon dioxide emissions nexus: a path toward sustainable development in South Africa. Renewable Energy.

  • Sbia R, Shahbaz M, Hamdi H (2014) A contribution of foreign direct investment, clean energy, trade openness, carbon emissions and economic growth to energy demand in UAE. Econ Model 36:191–197

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sebri M, Ben-Salha O (2014) On the causal dynamics between economic growth, renewable energy consumption, CO2 emissions and trade openness: fresh evidence from BRICS countries. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 39:14–23

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shabbir, M. S., & Wisdom, O. (2020). The relationship between corporate social responsibility, environmental investments and financial performance: evidence from manufacturing companies. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 1-12https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-10217-0

  • Shah IH, Hiles C, Morley B (2018) How do oil prices, macroeconomic factors and policies affect the market for renewable energy? Appl Energy 215:87–97

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shahbaz M, Nasreen S, Ling CH, Sbia R (2014) Causality between trade openness and energy consumption: what causes what in high, middle and low income countries. Energy Policy 70:126–143

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shahzad U (2020) Environmental taxes, energy consumption, and environmental quality: theoretical survey with policy implications. Environ Sci Pollut Res 27(20):24848–24862

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sharif A, Jammazi R, Raza SA, Shahzad SJH (2017) Electricity and growth nexus dynamics in Singapore: fresh insights based on wavelet approach. Energy Policy 110:686–692

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sharif A, Raza SA, Ozturk I, Afshan S (2019) The dynamic relationship of renewable and nonrenewable energy consumption with carbon emission: a global study with the application of heterogeneous panel estimations. Renewable Energy 133:685–691

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sharif A, Baris-Tuzemen O, Uzuner G, Ozturk I, Sinha A (2020) Revisiting the role of renewable and non-renewable energy consumption on Turkey’s ecological footprint: evidence from Quantile ARDL approach. Sustain Cities Soc 57:102138

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shayanmehr S, Rastegari Henneberry S, Sabouhi Sabouni M, Shahnoushi Foroushani N (2020) Drought, climate change, and dryland wheat yield response: an econometric approach. Int J Environ Res Public Health 17(14):5264

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Solt, F. (2019). Measuring income inequality across countries and over time: the standardized world income inequality database. SWIID Version 8.1, May 2019.

  • Suki NM, Sharif A, Afshan S, Suki NM (2020) Revisiting the Environmental Kuznets Curve in Malaysia: the role of globalization in sustainable environment. J Clean Prod 264:121669

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swamy, P. A. (1970). Efficient inference in a random coefficient regression model. Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society, 311–323.

  • Uzar U (2020) Is income inequality a driver for renewable energy consumption? J Clean Prod 255:120287

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Uzar U, Eyuboglu K (2019) The nexus between income inequality and CO2 emissions in Turkey. J Clean Prod 227:149–157

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wan J, Baylis K, Mulder P (2015) Trade-facilitated technology spillovers in energy productivity convergence processes across EU countries. Energy Economics 48:253–264

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang J, Dong K (2019) What drives environmental degradation? Evidence from 14 Sub-Saharan African countries. Sci Total Environ 656:165–173

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Global Warming of 1.5 ◦C (2018), United Nations, New York.

  • WDI, World Development Indicators, World Bank, (2020). https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators

  • Westerlund J (2008) Panel cointegration tests of the Fisher effect. J Appl Economet 23(2):193–233

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yao Y, Ivanovski K, Inekwe J, Smyth R (2019) Human capital and energy consumption: evidence from OECD countries. Energy Economics 84:104534

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yaqoob, N., Ali, S. A., Kannaiah, D., Khan, N., Shabbir, M. S., Bilal, K., & Tabash, M. I. (2022). The effects of Agriculture Productivity, Land Intensification, on Sustainable Economic Growth: a panel analysis from Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan Economies. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 1–9.

  • Yikun, Z., Gul, A., Saleem, S., Shabbir, M. S., Bilal, K., &Abbasi, H. M. (2021). The relationship between renewable energy sources and sustainable economic growth: evidence from SAARC countries. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 1–10.

  • Yu S, Hu X, Li L, Chen H (2020) Does the development of renewable energy promote carbon reduction? Evidence from Chinese provinces. J Environ Manage 268:110634

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zeren F, Akkuş HT (2020) The relationship between renewable energy consumption and trade openness: new evidence from emerging economies. Renewable Energy 147:322–329

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This paper is based on the Ph.D. dissertation of Iftikhar Muhammad. The views, information, or opinions expressed in papers are those of the authors, and the usual disclaimer applies.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Ibn Haldun University, Istanbul, Turkey

    Iftikhar Muhammad & Rasim Ozcan

  2. Department of Management Sciences, Teerthanker Mahaveer University, Uttar Pradesh, Moradabad, India

    Vipin Jain

  3. Department of Management Sciences, Rajkiya Engineering College Bijnor, Uttar Pradesh, Bijnor, India

    Paritosh Sharma

  4. Department of Management Sciences, University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan

    Malik Shahzad Shabbir

Authors
  1. Iftikhar Muhammad
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Rasim Ozcan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Vipin Jain
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Paritosh Sharma
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Malik Shahzad Shabbir
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

Iftikhar Muhammad: conceptualization, investigation; Malik Shahzad: data creation, resources, methodology. Rasim Ozcan: methodology, formal analysis; Vipin Jain: data analysis and its interpretation. Paritosh Sharma: Abstract and Conclusion sections, formation of paper as per journal requirements.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Iftikhar Muhammad.

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

This study did not use any kind of human participants or human data, which require any kind of approval.

Consent to publish

Our study did not use any kind of individual data such as video and images.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Responsible Editor: Arshian Sharif

Publisher's note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Appendix

Appendix

Table 10

Table 10 List of countries 
Full size table

11

Table 11 Variance inflation factors (VIF)
Full size table

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Muhammad, I., Ozcan, R., Jain, V. et al. Does environmental sustainability affect the renewable energy consumption? Nexus among trade openness, CO2 emissions, income inequality, renewable energy, and economic growth in OECD countries. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29, 90147–90157 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-22011-1

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-22011-1

Keywords

JEL Classification

Search

Navigation