Abstract
Microplastics pollution is becoming a major environmental issue, and exposure to microplastics has been associated with numerous adverse results to both the ecological system and humans. This work summarized the state-of-the-art developments in the breakdown of microplastics, including natural weathering, catalysts-assisted breakdown and biodegradation. Characterization techniques for microplastic breakdown involve scanning electron microscopy, Fourier infrared spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, etc. Bioavailability and adsorption capacity of microplastics may change after they are broken down, therefore leading to variety in microplastics toxicity. Further prospectives for should be focused on the determination and toxicity evaluation of microplastics breakdown products, as well as unraveling uncultivable microplastics degraders via cultivation-independent approaches. This work benefits researchers interested in environmental studies, particularly the removal of microplastics from environmental matrix.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.
References
Ali SS, Qazi IA, Arshad M, Khan Z, Voice TC, Mehmood CT (2016) Photocatalytic degradation of low density polyethylene (LDPE) films using titania nanotubes. Environ Nanotechnol Monit Manag 5:44–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enmm.2016.01.001
Anderson PJ, Warrack S, Langen V, Challis JK, Hanson ML, Rennie MD (2017) Microplastic contamination in lake Winnipeg, Canada. Environ Pollut 225:223–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.02.072
Andrady AL (2017) The plastic in microplastics: A review. Mar Pollut Bull 119:12–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.01.082
Anjana K, Hinduja M, Sujitha K, Dharani G (2020) Review on plastic wastes in marine environment–Biodegradation and biotechnological solutions. Mar Pollut Bull 150:110733. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.110733
Arhant M, Le Gall M, Le Gac P-Y, Davies P (2019) Impact of hydrolytic degradation on mechanical properties of PET-Towards an understanding of microplastics formation. Polym Degrad Stab 161:175–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2019.01.021
Ariza-Tarazona MC, Villarreal-Chiu JF, Barbieri V, Siligardi C, Cedillo-González EI (2019) New strategy for microplastic degradation: Green photocatalysis using a protein-based porous N-TiO2 semiconductor. Ceram Int 45:9618–9624. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2018.10.208
Ariza-Tarazona MC, Villareal-Chiu JF, Hernández-López JM, De la Rosa JR, Barbieri V, Siligardi C, Cedillo-González EI (2020) Microplastic pollution reduction by a carbon and nitrogen-doped TiO2: Effect of pH and temperature in the photocatalytic degradation process. J Hazard Mater 395:122632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.122632
Auta HS, Emenike C, Fauziah S (2017a) Distribution and importance of microplastics in the marine environment: a review of the sources, fate, effects, and potential solutions. Environ Int 102:165–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2017.02.013
Auta HS, Emenike C, Fauziah S (2017b) Screening of Bacillus strains isolated from mangrove ecosystems in Peninsular Malaysia for microplastic degradation. Environ Pollut 231:1552–1559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.09.043
Awasthi AK, Tan Q, Li J (2020) Biotechnological Potential for Microplastic Waste. Trends Biotechnol 38:1196–1199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tibtech.2020.03.002
Baker PJ, Poultney C, Liu Z, Gross R, Montclare JK (2012) Identification and comparison of cutinases for synthetic polyester degradation. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 93:229–240. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-011-3402-4
Bakir A, Rowland SJ, Thompson RC (2014) Enhanced desorption of persistent organic pollutants from microplastics under simulated physiological conditions. Environ Pollut 185:16–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2013.10.007
Bandow N, Will V, Wachtendorf V, Simon F-G (2017) Contaminant release from aged microplastic. Environ Chem 14:394–405. https://doi.org/10.1071/EN17064
Basílico G, de Cabo L, Magdaleno A, Faggi A (2016) Poultry effluent bio-treatment with Spirodela intermedia and periphyton in mesocosms with water recirculation. Water Air Soil Pollut 227:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-016-2896-x
Bergmann M, Mützel S, Primpke S, Tekman MB, Trachsel J, Gerdts G (2019) White and wonderful? Microplastics prevail in snow from the Alps to the Arctic. Science. Advances 5:eaax1157. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aax1157
Besseling E, Wegner A, Foekema EM, Van Den Heuvel-Greve MJ, Koelmans AA (2013) Effects of microplastic on fitness and PCB bioaccumulation by the lugworm Arenicola marina (L.). Environ Sci Technol 47:593–600. https://doi.org/10.1021/es302763x
Bhagat J, Nishimura N, Shimada Y (2021) Toxicological interactions of microplastics/nanoplastics and environmental contaminants: Current knowledge and future perspectives. J Hazard Mater 405:123913. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123913
Brandon J, Goldstein M, Ohman MD (2016) Long-term aging and degradation of microplastic particles: comparing in situ oceanic and experimental weathering patterns. Mar Pollut Bull 110:299–308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.06.048
Brennecke D, Duarte B, Paiva F, Caçador I, Canning-Clode J (2016) Microplastics as vector for heavy metal contamination from the marine environment. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 178:189–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2015.12.003
Brooks AL, Wang S, Jambeck JR (2018) The Chinese import ban and its impact on global plastic waste trade. Science. Advances 4:eaat0131. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aat0131
Browne MA, Dissanayake A, Galloway TS, Lowe DM, Thompson RC (2008) Ingested microscopic plastic translocates to the circulatory system of the mussel, Mytilus edulis (L.). Environ Sci Technol 42:5026–5031. https://doi.org/10.1021/es800249a
Browne MA, Crump P, Niven SJ, Teuten E, Tonkin A, Galloway T, Thompson R (2011) Accumulation of microplastic on shorelines woldwide: sources and sinks. Environ Sci Technol 45:9175–9179. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7TA03878J
Butt A, Rehman K, Khan MX, Hesselberg T (2018) Bioaccumulation of cadmium, lead, and zinc in agriculture-based insect food chains. Environ Monit Assess 190:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-018-7051-2
Cai L, Wang J, Peng J, Tan Z, Zhan Z, Tan X, Chen Q (2017) Characteristic of microplastics in the atmospheric fallout from Dongguan city, China: preliminary research and first evidence. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24:24928–24935. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-0116-x
Cai L, Wang J, Peng J, Wu Z, Tan X (2018) Observation of the degradation of three types of plastic pellets exposed to UV irradiation in three different environments. Sci Total Environ 628:740–747
Carmen S (2021) Microbial capability for the degradation of chemical additives present in petroleum-based plastic products: A review on current status and perspectives. J Hazard Mater 402:123534. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123534
Chain EPoCitF (2016) Presence of microplastics and nanoplastics in food, with particular focus on seafood. EFSA J 14:e04501. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2016.4501
Chamas A, Moon H, Zheng J, Qiu Y, Tabassum T, Jang JH, Abu-Omar M, Scott SL, Suh S (2020) Degradation rates of plastics in the environment. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 8:3494–3511. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.9b06635
Chen Q, Yin D, Jia Y, Schiwy S, Legradi J, Yang S, Hollert H (2017) Enhanced uptake of BPA in the presence of nanoplastics can lead to neurotoxic effects in adult zebrafish. Sci Total Environ 609:1312–1321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.07.144
Chen Y, Dumont MG, Neufeld JD, Bodrossy L, Stralis-Pavese N, McNamara NP, Ostle N, Briones MJ, Murrell JC (2008) Revealing the uncultivated majority: combining DNA stable-isotope probing, multiple displacement amplification and metagenomic analyses of uncultivated Methylocystis in acidic peatlands. Environ Microbiol 10:2609–2622. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1462-2920.2008.01683.x
Chen Y, Stemple B, Kumar M, Wei N (2016) Cell surface display fungal laccase as a renewable biocatalyst for degradation of persistent micropollutants bisphenol A and sulfamethoxazole. Environ Sci Technol 50:8799–8808. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b01641
Choi JS, Jung Y-J, Hong N-H, Hong SH, Park J-W (2018) Toxicological effects of irregularly shaped and spherical microplastics in a marine teleost, the sheepshead minnow (Cyprinodon variegatus). Mar Pollut Bull 129:231–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.02.039
Chua EM, Shimeta J, Nugegoda D, Morrison PD, Clarke BO (2014) Assimilation of polybrominated diphenyl ethers from microplastics by the marine amphipod, Allorchestes compressa. Environ Sci Technol 48:8127–8134. https://doi.org/10.1021/es405717z
Cole M (2013) Microplastic Swallowing Zooplankton Environ. Sci Technol:6646–6655
Cole M, Lindeque P, Fileman E, Halsband C, Goodhead R, Moger J, Galloway TS (2013) Microplastic ingestion by zooplankton. Environ Sci Technol 47:6646–6655. https://doi.org/10.1021/es400663f
Corcoran PL (2020) Degradation of Microplastics in the Environment. Handbook Microplast Environ:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-10618-8_10-1
Courtene-Jones W, Quinn B, Gary SF, Mogg AO, Narayanaswamy BE (2017) Microplastic pollution identified in deep-sea water and ingested by benthic invertebrates in the Rockall Trough, North Atlantic Ocean. Environ Pollut 231:271–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.08.026
Črešnar B, Petrič Š (2011) Cytochrome P450 enzymes in the fungal kingdom Proteins and proteomics. Biochim Biophys Acta 1814:29–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbapap.2010.06.020
Da Costa JP, Nunes AR, Santos PS, Girao AV, Duarte AC, Rocha-Santos T (2018) Degradation of polyethylene microplastics in seawater: Insights into the environmental degradation of polymers. J Environ Sci Health A 53:866–875. https://doi.org/10.1080/10934529.2018.1455381
Dawson AL, Kawaguchi S, King CK, Townsend KA, King R, Huston WM, Nash SMB (2018) Turning microplastics into nanoplastics through digestive fragmentation by Antarctic krill. Nat Commun 9:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-03465-9
de Wit W, Bigaud N (2019) No plastic in nature: assessing plastic ingestion from nature to people. WWF Publishing World Wide Fund For Nature (Formerly World Wildlife Fund). https://d2ouvy59p0dg6k.cloudfront.net/downloads/plastic_ingestion_web_spreads.pdf. Accessed 26 March 2021
Ding L, Mao R, Ma S, Guo X, Zhu L (2020) High temperature depended on the ageing mechanism of microplastics under different environmental conditions and its effect on the distribution of organic pollutants. Water Res 174:115634. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2020.115634
Dobretsov S, Abed RM, Teplitski M (2013) Mini-review: Inhibition of biofouling by marine microorganisms. Biofouling 29:423–441. https://doi.org/10.1080/08927014.2013.776042
Dris R, Gasperi J, Saad M, Mirande C, Tassin B (2016) Synthetic fibers in atmospheric fallout: a source of microplastics in the environment? Mar Pollut Bull 104:290–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.01.006
Esmaeili A, Pourbabaee AA, Alikhani HA, Shabani F, Esmaeili E (2013) Biodegradation of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) by mixed culture of Lysinibacillus xylanilyticus and Aspergillus niger in soil. PLoS One 8:e71720
Fendall LS, Sewell MA (2009) Contributing to marine pollution by washing your face: microplastics in facial cleansers. Mar Pollut Bull 58:1225–1228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.04.025
Ferreira P, Fonte E, Soares ME, Carvalho F, Guilhermino L (2016) Effects of multi-stressors on juveniles of the marine fish Pomatoschistus microps: gold nanoparticles, microplastics and temperature. Aquat Toxicol 170:89–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquatox.2015.11.011
Flemming H-C (1998) Relevance of biofilms for the biodeterioration of surfaces of polymeric materials. Polym Degrad Stab 59:309–315. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0141-3910(97)00189-4
Fossi MC, Marsili L, Baini M, Giannetti M, Coppola D, Guerranti C, Caliani I, Minutoli R, Lauriano G, Finoia MG (2016) Fin whales and microplastics: The Mediterranean Sea and the Sea of Cortez scenarios. Environ Pollut 209:68–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2015.11.022
Frias J, Sobral P, Ferreira AM (2010) Organic pollutants in microplastics from two beaches of the Portuguese coast. Mar Pollut Bull 60:1988–1992. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2010.07.030
Frias J, Nash R (2019) Microplastics: finding a consensus on the definition. Mar Pollut Bull 138:145–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.11.022
Gardette M, Perthue A, Gardette J-L, Janecska T, Földes E, Pukánszky B, Therias S (2013) Photo-and thermal-oxidation of polyethylene: comparison of mechanisms and influence of unsaturation content. Polym Degrad Stab 98:2383–2390. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2013.07.017
Ge J, Li H, Liu P, Zhang Z, Ouyang Z, Guo X (2021) Review of the toxic effect of microplastics on terrestrial and aquatic plants. Sci Total Environ 791:148333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148333
Gewert B, Plassmann MM, MacLeod M (2015) Pathways for degradation of plastic polymers floating in the marine environment. Environ Sci Process Impacts 17:1513–1521
Geyer R, Jambeck JR, Law KL (2017) Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made. Sci Adv 3:e1700782. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1700782
Gong J, Kong T, Li Y, Li Q, Li Z, Zhang J (2018) Biodegradation of microplastic derived from poly (ethylene terephthalate) with bacterial whole-cell biocatalysts. Polymers 10:1326. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10121326
Gu J-G, Gu J-D (2005) Methods currently used in testing microbiological degradation and deterioration of a wide range of polymeric materials with various degree of degradability: a review. J Polym Environ 13:65–74. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-004-1230-7
Guan Y, Gong J, Song B, Li J, Fang S, Tang S, Cao W, Li Y, Chen Z, Ye J (2022) The effect of UV exposure on conventional and degradable microplastics adsorption for Pb (II) in sediment. Chemosphere 286:131777
Habib S, Iruthayam A, Abd Shukor MY, Alias SA, Smykla J, Yasid NA (2020) Biodeterioration of Untreated Polypropylene Microplastic Particles by Antarctic Bacteria. Polymers 12:2616. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12112616
Hadad D, Geresh S, Sivan A (2005) Biodegradation of polyethylene by the thermophilic bacterium Brevibacillus borstelensis. J Appl Microbiol 98:1093–1100. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2672.2005.02553.x
Hämer J, Gutow L, Köhler A, Saborowski R (2014) Fate of microplastics in the marine isopod Idotea emarginata. Environ Sci Technol 48:13451–13458. https://doi.org/10.1021/es501385y
Harrison JP, Boardman C, O'Callaghan K, Delort A-M, Song J (2018) Biodegradability standards for carrier bags and plastic films in aquatic environments: a critical review. R Soc Open Sci 5:171792. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.171792
He C, Sasaki T, Shimizu Y, Koshizaki N (2008) Synthesis of ZnO nanoparticles using nanosecond pulsed laser ablation in aqueous media and their self-assembly towards spindle-like ZnO aggregates. Appl Surf Sci 254:2196–2202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2007.09.007
He D, Luo Y, Lu S, Liu M, Song Y, Lei L (2018) Microplastics in soils: analytical methods, pollution characteristics and ecological risks. TrAC Trends Anal Chem 109:163–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2018.10.006
Horton AA, Walton A, Spurgeon DJ, Lahive E, Svendsen C (2017) Microplastics in freshwater and terrestrial environments: evaluating the current understanding to identify the knowledge gaps and future research priorities. Sci Total Environ 586:127–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.01.190
Hossain MR, Jiang M, Wei Q, Leff LG (2019) Microplastic surface properties affect bacterial colonization in freshwater. J Basic Microbiol 59:54–61. https://doi.org/10.1002/jobm.201800174
Imhof HK, Laforsch C, Wiesheu AC, Schmid J, Anger PM, Niessner R, Ivleva NP (2016) Pigments and plastic in limnetic ecosystems: A qualitative and quantitative study on microparticles of different size classes. Water Res 98:64–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2016.03.015
Islam S, Apitius L, Jakob F, Schwaneberg U (2019) Targeting microplastic particles in the void of diluted suspensions. Environ Int 123:428–435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2018.12.029
Jiang B, Jin N, Xing Y, Su Y, Zhang D (2018a) Unraveling uncultivable pesticide degraders via stable isotope probing (SIP). Crit Rev Biotechnol 38:1025–1048. https://doi.org/10.1080/07388551.2018.1427697
Jiang B, Song Y, Liu Z, Huang WE, Li G, Deng S, Xing Y, Zhang D (2020a) Whole-cell bioreporters for evaluating petroleum hydrocarbon contamination. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol:1–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2020.1717907
Jiang R, Lin W, Wu J, Xiong Y, Zhu F, Bao L-J, You J, Ouyang G, Zeng EY (2018b) Quantifying nanoplastic-bound chemicals accumulated in Daphnia magna with a passive dosing method. Environ Sci: Nano 5:776–781. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7EN00932A
Jiang R, Lu G, Yan Z, Liu J, Wu D, Wang Y (2020b) Microplastic degradation by hydroxy-rich bismuth oxychloride. J Hazard Mater 405:124247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124247
Jiang R, Lu G, Yan Z, Liu J, Wu D, Wang Y (2021) Microplastic degradation by hydroxy-rich bismuth oxychloride. J Hazard Mater 405:124247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124247
Johansen MP, Cresswell T, Davis J, Howard DL, Howell NR, Prentice E (2019) Biofilm-enhanced adsorption of strong and weak cations onto different microplastic sample types: Use of spectroscopy, microscopy and radiotracer methods. Water Res 158:392–400. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2019.04.029
Kamalian P, Khorasani SN, Abdolmaleki A, Karevan M, Khalili S, Shirani M, Neisiany RE (2020) Toward the development of polyethylene photocatalytic degradation. J Polym Eng 40:181–191. https://doi.org/10.1515/polyeng-2019-0230
Kango S, Kalia S, Celli A, Njuguna J, Habibi Y, Kumar R (2013) Surface modification of inorganic ananoparticles for development of organic–inorganic nanocomposites—A review. Prog Polym Sci 38:1232–1261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2013.02.003
Karlsson TM, Hassellöv M, Jakubowicz I (2018) Influence of thermooxidative degradation on the in situ fate of polyethylene in temperate coastal waters. Mar Pollut Bull 135:187–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.07.015
Khoironi A, Anggoro S (2018) The existence of microplastic in Asian green mussels. IOP Con Series: Earth Environ Sci 131:012050
Klein M, Fischer EK (2019) Microplastic abundance in atmospheric deposition within the Metropolitan area of Hamburg, Germany. Sci Total Environ 685:96–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.05.405
Klein S, Dimzon IK, Eubeler J, Knepper TP (2018) Analysis, occurrence, and degradation of microplastics in the aqueous environment, Freshwater microplastics. Springer, Cham, pp 51–67
Lang M, Yu X, Liu J, Xia T, Wang T, Jia H, Guo X (2020) Fenton aging significantly affects the heavy metal adsorption capacity of polystyrene microplastics. Sci Total Environ 722:137762. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137762
Law KL, Thompson RC (2014) Microplastics in the seas. Science 345:144–145. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1254065
Lenz R, Enders K, Stedmon CA, Mackenzie DM, Nielsen TG (2015) A critical assessment of visual identification of marine microplastic using Raman spectroscopy for analysis improvement. Mar Pollut Bull 100:82–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.09.026
Li S, Wang P, Zhang C, Zhou X, Yin Z, Hu T, Hu D, Liu C, Zhu L (2020) Influence of polystyrene microplastics on the growth, photosynthetic efficiency and aggregation of freshwater microalgae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Sci Total Environ 714:136767. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.136767
Liebmann B, Köppel S, Königshofer P, Bucsics T, Reiberger T, Schwabl P (2018) Assessment of microplastic concentrations in human stool: Final results of a prospective study. Environ Agency Austria 10. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.16638.02884
Lin J, Yan D, Fu J, Chen Y, Ou H (2020) Ultraviolet-C and vacuum ultraviolet inducing surface degradation of microplastics. Water Res 186:116360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2020.116360
Liu L, Xu K, Zhang B, Ye Y, Zhang Q, Jiang W (2021a) Cellular internalization and release of polystyrene microplastics and nanoplastics. Sci Total Environ 779:146523. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146523
Liu L, Xu M, Ye Y, Zhang B (2022) On the degradation of (micro) plastics: Degradation methods, influencing factors, environmental impacts. Sci Total Environ 806:151312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151312
Liu P, Qian L, Wang H, Zhan X, Lu K, Gu C, Gao S (2019) New insights into the aging behavior of microplastics accelerated by advanced oxidation processes. Environ Sci Technol 53:3579–3588. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.9b00493
Liu P, Lu K, Li J, Wu X, Qian L, Wang M, Gao S (2020) Effect of aging on adsorption behavior of polystyrene microplastics for pharmaceuticals: Adsorption mechanism and role of aging intermediates. J Hazard Mater 384:121193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.121193
Liu P, Shi Y, Wu X, Wang H, Huang H, Guo X, Gao S (2021b) Review of the artificially-accelerated aging technology and ecological risk of microplastics. Sci Total Environ 768:144969. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.144969
Llorente-García BE, Hernández-López JM, Zaldívar-Cadena AA, Siligardi C, Cedillo-González EI (2020) First Insights into Photocatalytic Degradation of HDPE and LDPE Microplastics by a Mesoporous N–TiO2 Coating: Effect of Size and Shape of Microplastics. Coatings 10:658. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings10070658
Long M, Paul-Pont I, Hegaret H, Moriceau B, Lambert C, Huvet A, Soudant P (2017) Interactions between polystyrene microplastics and marine phytoplankton lead to species-specific hetero-aggregation. Environ Pollut 228:454–463. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.05.047
Lu Y, Zhang Y, Deng Y, Jiang W, Zhao Y, Geng J, Ding L, Ren H (2016) Uptake and accumulation of polystyrene microplastics in zebrafish (Danio rerio) and toxic effects in liver. Environ Sci Technol 50:4054–4060. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b00183
Lucas N, Bienaime C, Belloy C, Queneudec M, Silvestre F, Nava-Saucedo J-E (2008) Polymer biodegradation: Mechanisms and estimation techniques–A review. Chemosphere 73:429–442. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2008.06.064
Luo H, Liu C, He D, Xu J, Sun J, Li J, Pan X (2022) Environmental behaviors of microplastics in aquatic systems: A systematic review on degradation, adsorption, toxicity and biofilm under aging conditions. J Hazard Mater 423:126915
Lusher AL, Tirelli V, O’Connor I, Officer R (2015) Microplastics in Arctic polar waters: the first reported values of particles in surface and sub-surface samples. Sci Rep 5:14947. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep14947
Mao R, Lang M, Yu X, Wu R, Yang X, Guo X (2020) Aging mechanism of microplastics with UV irradiation and its effects on the adsorption of heavy metals. J Hazard Mater 393:122515. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.122515
Mato Y, Isobe T, Takada H, Kanehiro H, Ohtake C, Kaminuma T (2001) Plastic resin pellets as a transport medium for toxic chemicals in the marine environment. Environ Sci Technol 35:318–324. https://doi.org/10.1021/es0010498
Mattsson K, Johnson EV, Malmendal A, Linse S, Hansson L-A, Cedervall T (2017) Brain damage and behavioural disorders in fish induced by plastic nanoparticles delivered through the food chain. Sci Rep 7:1–7. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-10813-0
Miao F, Liu Y, Gao M, Yu X, Xiao P, Wang M, Wang S, Wang X (2020) Degradation of polyvinyl chloride microplastics via an electro-Fenton-like system with a TiO2/graphite cathode. J Hazard Mater 399:123023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123023
Miao L, Wang C, Hou J, Wang P, Ao Y, Dai S, Lv B (2015) Effects of pH and natural organic matter (NOM) on the adsorptive removal of CuO nanoparticles by periphyton. Environ Sci Pollut Res 22:7696–7704. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-3952-y
Mitik-Dineva N, Wang J, Truong VK, Stoddart P, Malherbe F, Crawford RJ, Ivanova EP (2009) Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus attachment patterns on glass surfaces with nanoscale roughness. Curr Microbiol 58:268–273. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00284-008-9320-8
Mohan K (2011) Microbial deterioration and degradation of polymeric materials. J Biochem Technol 2:210–215
Mohanan N, Montazer Z, Sharma PK, Levin DB (2020) Microbial and enzymatic degradation of synthetic plastics. Front Microbiol 11:2837. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2020.580709
Müller RJ, Schrader H, Profe J, Dresler K, Deckwer WD (2005) Enzymatic degradation of poly (ethylene terephthalate): rapid hydrolyse using a hydrolase from T. fusca. Macromol Rapid Commun 26:1400–1405. https://doi.org/10.1002/marc.200500410
Nabi I, Li K, Cheng H, Wang T, Liu Y, Ajmal S, Yang Y, Feng Y, Zhang L (2020) Complete Photocatalytic Mineralization of Microplastic on TiO2 Nanoparticle Film. Iscience 23:101326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2020.101326
Naidu S, Rao VR, Ramu K (2018) Microplastics in the benthic invertebrates from the coastal waters of Kochi, Southeastern Arabian Sea. Environ Geochem Health 40:1377–1383. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-017-0062-z
Nakata K, Fujishima A (2012) TiO2 photocatalysis: Design and applications. J Photochem Photobiol C: Photochem Rev 13:169–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphotochemrev.2012.06.001
Niu L, Li Y, Li Y, Hu Q, Hu J, Zhang W, Wang L, Zhang C, Zhang H (2020) New insights into the vertical distribution and microbial degradation of microplastics in urban river sediments. Water Res 188:116449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2020.116449
Nizzetto L, Futter M, Langaas S (2016) Are agricultural soils dumps for microplastics of urban origin? Environ Sci Technol 50:10777–10779. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b04140
Oberbeckmann S, Labrenz M (2020) Marine microbial assemblages on microplastics: Diversity, adaptation, and role in degradation. Annu Rev Mar Sci 12:209–232. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-marine-010419-010633
Oliveira M, Ribeiro A, Hylland K, Guilhermino L (2013) Single and combined effects of microplastics and pyrene on juveniles (0+ group) of the common goby Pomatoschistus microps (Teleostei, Gobiidae). Ecol Indic 34:641–647. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2013.06.019
Ong CB, Ng LY, Mohammad AW (2018) A review of ZnO nanoparticles as solar photocatalysts: synthesis, mechanisms and applications. Renew Sust Energ Rev 81:536–551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.08.020
Park SY, Kim CG (2019) Biodegradation of micro-polyethylene particles by bacterial colonization of a mixed microbial consortium isolated from a landfill site. Chemosphere 222:527–533. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.01.159
Pathak VM (2017) Review on the current status of polymer degradation: a microbial approach. Bioresources Bioprocess 4:1–31. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40643-017-0145-9
Peng G, Zhu B, Yang D, Su L, Shi H, Li D (2017) Microplastics in sediments of the Changjiang Estuary, China. Environ Pollut 225:283–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.12.064
Plastics Europe (2015) Plastics—the facts 2015. An analysis of European plastics production, demand and waste data. Association of Plastic Manufacturers Brussels publishing Plastics Europe. https://www.statista.com/statistics/282732/global-production-of-plastics-since-1950. Accessed 23 March 2021
Prata JC (2018) Airborne microplastics: consequences to human health? Environ Pollut 234:115–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.11.043
Qi K, Cheng B, Yu J, Ho W (2017) Review on the improvement of the photocatalytic and antibacterial activities of ZnO. J Alloys Compd 727:792–820. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2017.08.142
Qu H, Ma R, Wang B, Yang J, Duan L, Yu G (2019) Enantiospecific toxicity, distribution and bioaccumulation of chiral antidepressant venlafaxine and its metabolite in loach (Misgurnus anguillicaudatus) co-exposed to microplastic and the drugs. J Hazard Mater 370:203–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2018.04.041
Quecholac-Piña X, Hernández-Berriel MC, Mañón-Salas MC, Espinosa-Valdemar RM, Vázquez-Morillas A (2020) Degradation of plastics under anaerobic conditions: A short review. Polymers 12:109. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym12010109
Restrepo-Flórez J-M, Bassi A, Thompson MR (2014) Microbial degradation and deterioration of polyethylene–A review. Int Biodeterior Biodegradation 88:83–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibiod.2013.12.014
Rodrigues M, Abrantes N, Gonçalves F, Nogueira H, Marques J, Gonçalves A (2018) Spatial and temporal distribution of microplastics in water and sediments of a freshwater system (Antuã River, Portugal). Sci Total Environ 633:1549–1559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.03.233
Roth C, Wei R, Oeser T, Then J, Föllner C, Zimmermann W, Sträter N (2014) Structural and functional studies on a thermostable polyethylene terephthalate degrading hydrolase from Thermobifida fusca. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 98:7815–7823. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-014-5672-0
Rujnić-Sokele M, Pilipović A (2017) Challenges and opportunities of biodegradable plastics: A mini review. Waste Manag Res 35:132–140. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242X16683272
Rummel CD, Jahnke A, Gorokhova E, Kühnel D, Schmitt-Jansen M (2017) Impacts of biofilm formation on the fate and potential effects of microplastic in the aquatic environment. Environ SciTechnol Lett 4:258–267. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.7b00164
Sait ST, Sørensen L, Kubowicz S, Vike-Jonas K, Gonzalez SV, Asimakopoulos AG, Booth AM (2020) Microplastic fibres from synthetic textiles: Environmental degradation and additive chemical content. Environ Pollut 268:115745. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115745
Schettini E, Stefani L, Vox G (2014) Interaction between Agrochemical Contaminants and UV Stabilizersfor Greenhouse EVA Plastic Films. Appl Eng Agric 30:229–239. https://doi.org/10.13031/aea.30.10048
Sen SK, Raut S (2015) Microbial degradation of low density polyethylene (LDPE): A review. J Environ Chem Eng 3:462–473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2015.01.003
Shabbir S, Faheem M, Ali N, Kerr PG, Wu Y (2017) Evaluating role of immobilized periphyton in bioremediation of azo dye amaranth. Bioresour Technol 225:395–401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2016.11.115
Shabbir S, Faheem M, Wu Y (2018) Decolorization of high concentration crystal violet by periphyton bioreactors and potential of effluent reuse for agricultural purposes. J Clean Prod 170:425–436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.09.085
Shabbir S, Faheem M, Ali N, Kerr PG, Wang L-F, Kuppusamy S, Li Y (2020) Periphytic biofilm: An innovative approach for biodegradation of microplastics. Sci Total Environ 717:137064. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137064
Singh B, Sharma N (2008) Mechanistic implications of plastic degradation. Polym Degrad Stab 93:561–584. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2007.11.008
Song YK, Hong SH, Jang M, Han GM, Jung SW, Shim WJ (2017) Combined effects of UV exposure duration and mechanical abrasion on microplastic fragmentation by polymer type. Environ Sci Technol 51:4368–4376. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b06155
Sun Y, Yuan J, Zhou T, Zhao Y, Yu F, Ma J (2020) Laboratory simulation of microplastics weathering and its adsorption behaviors in an aqueous environment: a systematic review. Environ Pollut 265:114864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114864
Sutherland WJ, Bardsley S, Bennun L, Clout M, Côté IM, Depledge MH, Dicks LV, Dobson AP, Fellman L, Fleishman E (2011) Horizon scan of global conservation issues for 2011. Trends Ecol Evol 26:10–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2010.11.002
Sutton R, Mason SA, Stanek SK, Willis-Norton E, Wren IF, Box C (2016) Microplastic contamination in the San Francisco Bay, California, USA. Mar Pollut Bull 109:230–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.05.077
Ter Halle A, Ladirat L, Martignac M, Mingotaud AF, Boyron O, Perez E (2017) To what extent are microplastics from the open ocean weathered? Environ Pollut 227:167–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.04.051
Thompson RC, Olsen Y, Mitchell RP, Davis A, Rowland SJ, John AW, McGonigle D, Russell AE (2004) Lost at sea: where is all the plastic? Science (Washington) 304:838. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1094559
Tofa TS, Kunjali KL, Paul S, Dutta J (2019a) Visible light photocatalytic degradation of microplastic residues with zinc oxide nanorods. Environ Chem Lett 17:1341–1346. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-019-00859-z
Tofa TS, Ye F, Kunjali KL, Dutta J (2019b) Enhanced Visible Light Photodegradation of Microplastic Fragments with Plasmonic Platinum/Zinc Oxide Nanorod Photocatalysts. Catalysts 9:819. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal9100819
Tokiwa Y, Calabia BP (2008) Biological production of functional chemicals from renewable resources. Can J Chem 86:548–555. https://doi.org/10.1139/v08-046
Tsiota P, Karkanorachaki K, Syranidou E, Franchini M, Kalogerakis N (2018) Microbial degradation of HDPE secondary microplastics: preliminary results. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Microplastic Pollution in the Mediterranean Sea. Springer, Cham, pp 181–188
Uheida A, Mejía HG, Abdel-Rehim M, Hamd W, Dutta J (2020) Visible Light Photocatalytic Degradation of Polypropylene Microplastics in a Continuous Water Flow System. J Hazard Mater 406:124299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124299
Van Cauwenberghe L, Vanreusel A, Mees J, Janssen CR (2013) Microplastic pollution in deep-sea sediments. Environ Pollut 182:495–499. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2013.08.013
Wang C, Xian Z, Jin X, Liang S, Chen Z, Pan B, Wu B, Ok YS, Gu C (2020a) Photo-aging of polyvinyl chloride microplastic in the presence of natural organic acids. Water Res 183:116082. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2020.116082
Wang J-c, Wang H (2017) Fenton treatment for flotation separation of polyvinyl chloride from plastic mixtures. Sep Purif Technol 187:415–425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2017.06.076
Wang K, Li J, Zhao L, Mu X, Wang C, Wang M, Xue X, Qi S, Wu L (2020b) Gut microbiota protects honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) against polystyrene microplastics exposure risks. J Hazard Mater 402:123828. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123828
Wang Q, Wangjin X, Zhang Y, Wang N, Wang Y, Meng G, Chen Y (2020c) The toxicity of virgin and UV-aged PVC microplastics on the growth of freshwater algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Sci Total Environ 749:141603. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141603
Webb HK, Arnott J, Crawford RJ, Ivanova EP (2013) Plastic degradation and its environmental implications with special reference to poly (ethylene terephthalate). Polymers 5:1–18
Wei R, Zimmermann W (2017) Microbial enzymes for the recycling of recalcitrant petroleum-based plastics: how far are we? Microb Biotechnol 10:1308–1322. https://doi.org/10.1111/1751-7915.12710
Weinstein JE, Crocker BK, Gray AD (2016) From macroplastic to microplastic: Degradation of high-density polyethylene, polypropylene, and polystyrene in a salt marsh habitat. Environ Toxicol Chem 35:1632–1640. https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.3432
Wright SL, Thompson RC, Galloway TS (2013) The physical impacts of microplastics on marine organisms: a review. Environ Pollut 178:483–492. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2013.02.031
Xue X-D, Fang C-R, Zhuang H-F (2021) Adsorption behaviors of the pristine and aged thermoplastic polyurethane microplastics in Cu (II)-OTC coexisting system. J Hazard Mater 407:124835. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124835
Ya H, Jiang B, Xing Y, Zhang T, Lv M, Wang X (2021) Recent advances on ecological effects of microplastics on soil environment. Sci Total Environ 798:149338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149338
Yamada-Onodera K, Mukumoto H, Katsuyaya Y, Saiganji A, Tani Y (2001) Degradation of polyethylene by a fungus, Penicillium simplicissimum YK. Polym Degrad Stab 72:323–327. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0141-3910(01)00027-1
Yang WJ, Neoh K-G, Kang E-T, Teo SL-M, Rittschof D (2014) Polymer brush coatings for combating marine biofouling. Prog Polym Sci 39:1017–1042. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2014.02.002
Yin W, Zhang B, Shi J, Liu Z (2022) Microbial adaptation to co-occurring vanadium and microplastics in marine and riverine environments. J Hazard Mater 424:127646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.127646
Yuan J, Ma J, Sun Y, Zhou T, Zhao Y, Yu F (2020) Microbial degradation and other environmental aspects of microplastics/plastics. Sci Total Environ 715:136968. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.136968
Yuan K, Cao Q, Lu H-L, Zhong M, Zheng X, Chen H-Y, Wang T, Delaunay J-J, Luo W, Zhang L (2017) Oxygen-deficient WO3− x@ TiO 2− x core–shell nanosheets for efficient photoelectrochemical oxidation of neutral water solutions. J Mater Chem A 5:14697–14706. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7TA03878J
Zettler ER, Mincer TJ, Amaral-Zettler LA (2013) Life in the “plastisphere”: microbial communities on plastic marine debris. Environ Sci Technol 47:7137–7146. https://doi.org/10.1021/es401288x
Zhang D, Berry JP, Zhu D, Wang Y, Chen Y, Jiang B, Huang S, Langford H, Li G, Davison PA (2015) Magnetic nanoparticle-mediated isolation of functional bacteria in a complex microbial community. ISME J 9:603–614. https://doi.org/10.1038/ismej.2014.161
Zhang J, Gao D, Li Q, Zhao Y, Li L, Lin H, Bi Q, Zhao Y (2020a) Biodegradation of polyethylene microplastic particles by the fungus Aspergillus flavus from the guts of wax moth Galleria mellonella. Sci Total Environ 704:135931. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135931
Zhang S, Wang J, Yan P, Hao X, Xu B, Wang W, Aurangzeib M (2020b) Non-biodegradable microplastics in soils: A brief review and challenge. J Hazard Mater 409:124525. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124525
Zhang T, Jiang B, Xing Y, Ya H, Lv M, Wang X (2022) Current status of microplastics pollution in the aquatic environment, interaction with other pollutants, and effects on aquatic organisms. Environ Sci Pollut Res:1–30. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-18504-8
Zhao X, Li Z, Chen Y, Shi L, Zhu Y (2007) Solid-phase photocatalytic degradation of polyethylene plastic under UV and solar light irradiation. J Mol Catal A Chem 268:101–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molcata.2006.12.012
Acknowledgement
Financial support was provided by the Natural Science Foundation of China (42177359), Special Fund of State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control (19K04ESPCT), Natural Science Foundation of Beijing (8212030), Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (FRF-TP-20-010A3) and the Open Fund of National Engineering Laboratory for Site Remediation Technologies (NEL-SRT201907).
Funding
Financial support was provided by the Natural Science Foundation of China (42177359, 41807119), Natural Science Foundation of Beijing (8212030), Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (FRF-TP-20-010A3) and the Open Fund of National Engineering Laboratory for Site Remediation Technologies (NEL-SRT201907).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
ML performed the data analyses and wrote the manuscript; BJ contributed to the conception of the study and provided ideas; YX helped perform the analysis with constructive discussions; HY and TZ provided a lot of work for the revision of the paper; XW analyzed existing literatures; all authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable
Consent for publication
Not applicable
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Philippe Garrigues
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Lv, M., Jiang, B., Xing, Y. et al. Recent advances in the breakdown of microplastics: strategies and future prospectives. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29, 65887–65903 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-22004-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-22004-0