Abstract
This study deals with the toxicity of the treated solutions of two types of dyes, namely, the anthraquinonic Reactive Bleu 19 dye (RB19) and the bi-azoic Direct Red 227 dye (DR227), which are treated in single and binary mixture systems. The target molecules were removed by the photocatalysis process using ZnO as a catalyst, which was calcined at two temperatures 250 and 420 °C (ZnO250 and ZnO420) prepared in the lab by the one-step calcination method. XRD, TEM, EDX, XPS, FT-IR, BET, RAMAN, and EPR analyses were carried out to characterize the catalyst material. While the phytotoxicity was being conducted using watercress seeds, the cytotoxicity took place using a cell line (raw) and an intestinal cell (caco-2). The XRD analysis showed the partial calcination of ZnO250 and the presence of anhydrous zinc acetate along with the ZnO nanoparticles (NPs). This result was not observed for ZnO420. Despite the complete discoloration (100%) of all the final solutions, ZnO250 exhibited a high cytotoxicity and phytotoxicity against the RB19 dye after the photocatalytic treatment; however, it was not the case of ZnO420 which was selected as an eco-friendly photocatalyst for the degradation of organic dyes based on the results of removal efficiency, cytotoxicity, and phytotoxicity.
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Acknowledgements
The authors thank Ivane Lelievre (Unilasalle-EME) for her technical help, the English language teacher Souad Cherif for her helpful English revision, the Centre Imagerie Cellulaire Sante (Clermont Auvergne University), most notably Christelle Blavignac, for her technical assistance in TEM analysis and the Framework of the LabEx IMobS3, Guillaume Monier of Institut Pascal (UMR 6602) for his technical assistance in XPS measure, Pr. Daniel Zambon, and Dr. Angélique Bousquet from ICCF.
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The authors would like to thank the Algerian Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research for their financial support.
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Sonia Cherif: conceptualization, methodology, investigation, data curation, drafting of the manuscript. Hayet Djelal: supervision, methodology, resources, investigation, and reviewing. Stephane Firmin: methodology, cytotoxicity analysis, investigation, reviewing. Pierre Bonnet: characterization analysis, investigation, data curation, reviewing. Lawrence Frezet: characterization analysis, data curation. Abdoulaye Kane: supervision, conceptualization, resources, methodology, reviewing. Aymen Amine Assadi: resources, reviewing. Mohamed Trari: conceptualization, reviewing. Hynda Yazid: supervision, conceptualization, investigation, and reviewing.
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Cherif, S., Djelal, H., Firmin, S. et al. The impact of material design on the photocatalytic removal efficiency and toxicity of two textile dyes. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29, 66640–66658 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-20452-2
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-20452-2