Abstract
Irgarol 1051 and diuron are photosystem II inhibitors in agricultural activities and antifouling paints in the shipping sector. This study focused on three major ports (western, southern, and eastern) surrounding Peninsular Malaysia to construct the distribution of both biocides on the basis of the seasonal and geographical changes. Surface seawater samples were collected from November 2011 to April 2012 and pretreated using the solid-phase extraction technique followed by quantification with GC-MS and LC-MS-MS for Irgarol 1051 and diuron, respectively. Generally, the distribution of Irgarol 1051 was lowest during November 2011 and highest during April 2012, and similar patterns were observed at all ports, whereas the distribution of diuron was rather vague. The increasing pattern of Irgarol 1051 from time to time is probably related to its accumulation in the seawater as a result of its half-life and consistent utilization. On the basis of the discriminant analysis, the temporal distribution of Irgarol 1051 varied at Klang North Port, Klang South Port, and Pasir Gudang Port, whereas diuron was temporally varied only at Kemaman Port. Furthermore, Irgarol 1051 was spatially varied during November 2011, whereas diuron did not show any significant changes throughout all sampling periods. Ecological risk assessment exhibited a high risk for diuron and Irgarol 1051, but Irgarol 1051 should be of greater concern because of its higher risk compared to that of diuron. Thus, it is recommended that the current Malaysian guidelines and regulations of biocide application should be reevaluated and improved to protect the ecosystem, as well as to prevent ecological risks to the aquatic environment.
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Data availability
The datasets used/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
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Acknowledgements
This research was funded by the Ministry of Education Malaysia (MOE) research grant Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS/1/2011/STWN/UMT/02/3). The authors would like to acknowledge the University of Malaysia Terengganu (UMT), especially the Institute of Oceanography and Environment (INOS), the Faculty of Science and Marine Environment (FSSM), and the State University of Zanzibar (SUZA) for their support in conducting this research.
Funding
Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS/1/2011/STWN/UMT/02/3) by the Ministry of Education Malaysia (MOE) was used to fully fund this research (the design of study and collection, analysis, and interpretation of data).
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Study conception and design: Hassan Rashid Ali, Zainudin Bachok, Marinah Mohd Ariffin, Noor Azhar Mohamed Shazili, Mohammed Ali Sheikh
Methodology: Hassan Rashid Ali, Zainudin Bachok, Marinah Mohd Ariffin, Noor Azhar Mohamed Shazili, Mohammed Ali Sheikh
Writing original draft preparation: Marinah Mohd Ariffin, Tuan Fauzan Tuan Omar, Adiana Ghazali
Writing review and editing: Marinah Mohd, Hassan Rashid Ali, Noor Azhar Mohamed Shazili, Adiana Ghazali
Data analysis: Tuan Fauzan Tuan Omar, Adiana Ghazali
Funding acquisition: Zainudin Bachok
Supervision: Zainudin Bachok, Marinah Mohd Ariffin, Noor Azhar Mohamed Shazili, Mohammed Ali Sheikh
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Ali, H.R., Ariffin, M.M., Omar, T.F.T. et al. Antifouling paint biocides (Irgarol 1051 and diuron) in the selected ports of Peninsular Malaysia: occurrence, seasonal variation, and ecological risk assessment. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28, 52247–52257 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-14424-1
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-14424-1