Abstract
Along with the growing utilization of zinc (Zn) and Zn-containing nanoparticles in various industries, Zn ecotoxicological evaluation on human food supply is necessary even though Zn is generally considered safe and rarely concentrated ecotoxicologically. This study aimed to investigate the bioaccumulation of Zn in 18 species of vegetables (seven leafy, nine fruity vegetables and one species each of tuber and legume) collected from two farming sites in the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia. A human health risk assessment (HHRA) was also conducted. In addition to HHRA based on the general population, HHRA based on each major ethnic group of the Malaysian society was also determined considering that the food consumption pattern would definitely be varied across ethnicities and age groups (children and adults). The study results showed that Zn concentrations were significantly higher (p < 0.05) in leafy vegetables than in other types of vegetables. However, the target hazard quotient (THQ) values were all found to be < 1.0. Therefore, based on the Malaysian ethnicities and age groups with their respective vegetable consumption patterns, the results indicated insignificant noncarcinogenic human health risk of Zn via oral consumption of vegetables by the Malaysian population. As a metric of measurement of HHRA, a comparison of THQ values could yield previously unreported insights into HHRA differences among the compared populations. A comparison of THQ values among the consumer groups indicated higher HHR for Chinese Malaysians and children due to their higher vegetable consumption and lower body weight, respectively. A comparison the Zn intakes of all the consumer groups with the recommended nutrient intakes indicated that the oral consumption of the vegetable species collected in this study would not result in Zn-related hazards and would not be able to fulfil the Zn dietary need of the individual consumer.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
Not applicable
References
Ahmad NI, Wan Mahiyuddin WR, Tengku Mohamad TR, Ling CY, Daud SF, Hussein NC, Abdullah NA, Shaharudin R, Sulaiman LH (2016) Fish consumption pattern among adults of different ethnics in Peninsular Malaysia. Food Nutr Res 60:32697. https://doi.org/10.3402/fnr.v60.32697
Ahmad A, Zulaily N, Abdul Manan NS, Shahril MR, Syed Saadun Tarek Wafa SWW, Mohd Amin R, Syed Abdullah EFH, Ahmed A (2017) Body weight status of school adolescents in Terengganu, Malaysia: a population baseline study. BMC Public Health 17:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-016-3911-2
Alkarkhi AFM, Ismail N, Ahmed A, mat Easa A (2008) Analysis of heavy metal concentrations in sediments of selected estuaries of Malaysia—a statistical assessment. Environ Monit Assess 153:179–185. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-008-0347-x
ATSDR (2005) Toxicological Profile for Zinc. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. US Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta
Bacaksiz E, Parlak M, Tomakin M, Özçelik A, Karakız M, Altunbaş M (2008) The effects of zinc nitrate, zinc acetate and zinc chloride precursors on investigation of structural and optical properties of ZnO thin films. J Alloys Compd 466:447–450. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JALLCOM.2007.11.061
Bae Y-J, Kim M-H, Lee J-H, Choi M-K (2015) Analysis of six elements (Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn, Cu, and Mn) in several wild vegetables and evaluation of their intakes based on Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2010–2011. Biol Trace Elem Res 164:114–121. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-014-0203-5
Bi C, Zhou Y, Chen Z, Jia J, Bao X (2018) Heavy metals and lead isotopes in soils, road dust and leafy vegetables and health risks via vegetable consumption in the industrial areas of Shanghai, China. Sci Total Environ 619–620:1349–1357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.11.177
Boeing H, Bechthold A, Bub A, Ellinger S, Haller D, Kroke A, Leschik-Bonnet E, Müller MJ, Oberritter H, Schulze M, Stehle P, Watzl B (2012) Critical review: vegetables and fruit in the prevention of chronic diseases. Eur J Nutr 51:637–663. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-012-0380-y
Brennan RF, Bolland MDA, Shea G (2011) Comparing how Lupinus angustifolius and Lupinus luteus use zinc fertilizer for seed production. Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst 59:209–217
Broadley MR, White PJ, Hammond JP, Zelko I, Lux A (2007) Zinc in plants. New Phytol 173:677–702. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.01996.x
Chasapis CT, Loutsidou AC, Spiliopoulou CA, Stefanidou ME (2012) Zinc and human health: an update. Arch Toxicol 86:521–534. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-011-0775-1
Cheng WH, Yap CK (2015) Potential human health risks from toxic metals via mangrove snail consumption and their ecological risk assessments in the habitat sediment from Peninsular Malaysia. Chemosphere 135:156–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.04.013
Chong KH, Lee ST, Ng SA et al (2017) Fruit and vegetable intake patterns and their associations with sociodemographic characteristics, anthropometric status and nutrient intake profiles among Malaysian children aged 1–6 years. Nutrients 9. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9080723
Chow YN, Lee LK, Zakaria NA, Foo KY (2017) New emerging hydroponic system. Int Malays-Indones-Thail Symp Innov Creat 2:7
Department of Statistics Malaysia (2018) Selected Agricultural Indicators, Malaysia
Devine CM, Connors M, Bisogni CA, Sobal J (1998) Life-course influences on fruit and vegetable trajectories: qualitative analysis of food choices. J Nutr Educ 30:361–370. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3182(98)70358-9
Elsokkary IH, El-Attar HA, Amer MA (1981) Influence of phosphorus and zinc fertilizers on the uptake of P and Zn by corn plants grown in highly calcareous soils. Plant Soil 59:227–236. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02184196
FAO/WHO (2001) Zinc. In: Human Vitamin and Mineral Requirements. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Health Organization, Rome, pp 257–270
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (1983) Compilation of legal limits for hazardous substances in fish and fishery products. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Geneva
Fuge R (2013) Anthropogenic Sources. In: Selinus O, Alloway B, Centeno JA et al (eds) Essentials of Medical Geology. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 59–74
Gammoh NZ, Rink L (2017) Zinc in infection and inflammation. Nutrients 9:624. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9060624
Hargreaves J, Adl M, Warman P (2008) A review of the use of composted municipal solid waste in agriculture. Agric Ecosyst Environ 123:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2007.07.004
Huang G, Ding C, Zhou Z, Zhang T, Wang X (2019) A tillering application of zinc fertilizer based on basal stabilization reduces Cd accumulation in rice (Oryza sativa L.). Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 167:338–344. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.10.044
Ibrahim S, Karim NA, Oon NL, Ngah WZW (2013) Perceived physical activity barriers related to body weight status and sociodemographic factors among Malaysian men in Klang Valley. BMC Public Health:13. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-275
Ismail MN, Chee SS, Nawawi H, Yusoff K, Lim TO, James WPT (2002) Obesity in Malaysia. Obes Rev 3:203–208. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1467-789X.2002.00074.x
JECFA (1982) 553. Zinc (WHO Food Additives Series 17). Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, Geneva
Jolly YN, Islam A, Akbar S (2013) Transfer of metals from soil to vegetables and possible health risk assessment. SpringerPlus 2:385. https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-1801-2-385
Jośko I, Oleszczuk P (2014) Phytotoxicity of nanoparticles-problems with bioassay choosing and sample preparation. Environ Sci Pollut Res 21:10215–10224. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-2865-0
Jung MC, Thornton I (1996) Heavy metal contamination of soils and plants in the vicinity of a lead-zinc mine, Korea. Appl Geochem 11:53–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/0883-2927(95)00075-5
Li B, Wang Y, Jiang Y et al (2016) The accumulation and health risk of heavy metals in vegetables around a zinc smelter in northeastern China. Environ Sci Pollut Res 23:25114–25126. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-7342-5
Li X, Li Z, Lin C-J, Bi X, Liu J, Feng X, Zhang H, Chen J, Wu T (2018) Health risks of heavy metal exposure through vegetable consumption near a large-scale Pb/Zn smelter in central China. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 161:99–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.05.080
Lim TO, Ding LM, Zaki M et al (2000) Distribution of body weight, height and body mass index in a national sample of Malaysian adults. Med J Malaysia 55:21
Liu X, Song Q, Tang Y, Li W, Xu J, Wu J, Wang F, Brookes PC (2013) Human health risk assessment of heavy metals in soil–vegetable system: a multi-medium analysis. Sci Total Environ 463–464:530–540. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.06.064
Liu D-Y, Zhang W, Yan P, Chen XP, Zhang FS, Zou CQ (2017) Soil application of zinc fertilizer could achieve high yield and high grain zinc concentration in maize. Plant Soil 411:47–55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-016-3105-9
Lopes C, Herva M, Franco-Uría A, Roca E (2011) Inventory of heavy metal content in organic waste applied as fertilizer in agriculture: evaluating the risk of transfer into the food chain. Environ Sci Pollut Res 18:918–939. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-011-0444-1
Malaysia Ministry of Health (1985) Malaysian Food Regulations
Marcussen H, Joergensen K, Holm PE, Brocca D, Simmons RW, Dalsgaard A (2008) Element contents and food safety of water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica Forssk.) cultivated with wastewater in Hanoi, Vietnam. Environ Monit Assess 139:77–91. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-007-9817-9
Najib NWAZ, Mohammed SA, Ismail SH et al (2012) Assessment of heavy metal in soil due to human activities in Kangar, Perlis, Malaysia. Int J Civ Eng Environ 12:28–33
NCCFN (2005a) Recommended nutrient intakes for Malaysia, a report of the technical working group on nutritional guidelines. Ministry of Health Malaysia, Putrajaya
NCCFN (2005b) Zinc. In: Recommended Nutrient Intakes for Malaysia. Ministry of Health Malaysia, Putrajaya, pp 177–191
Nriagu J (2011) Zinc toxicity in humans. Encycl Environ Health:801–807. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-52272-6.00675-9
Nurul Izzah A, Aminah A, Md Pauzi A et al (2012) Patterns of fruits and vegetable consumption among adults of different ethnics in Selangor, Malaysia. Int Food Res J 19:1095–1107. https://doi.org/10.1177/1010539512458523
Nwachukwu MA, Feng H, Alinnor J (2011) Trace metal dispersion in soil from auto-mechanic village to urban residential areas in owerri, Nigeria. Procedia Environ Sci 4:310–322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proenv.2011.03.036
Ong GH, Wong LS, Tan AL, Yap CK (2015) Effects of metal-contaminated soils on the accumulation of heavy metals in gotu kola (Centella asiatica) and the potential health risks: a study in Peninsular Malaysia. Environ Monit Assess 188:40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-015-5042-0
Oteef MDY, Fawy KF, Abd-Rabboh HSM, Idris AM (2015) Levels of zinc, copper, cadmium, and lead in fruits and vegetables grown and consumed in Aseer region, Saudi Arabia. Environ Monit Assess 187:676. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-015-4905-8
Parveen Z, Khuhro MI, Rafiq N (2003) Market basket survey for lead, cadmium, copper, chromium, nickel, and zinc in fruits and vegetables. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 71:1260–1264. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-003-8640-4
Piccinno F, Gottschalk F, Seeger S, Nowack B (2012) Industrial production quantities and uses of ten engineered nanomaterials in Europe and the world. J Nanopart Res 14:1109. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11051-012-1109-9
Prasad AS, Sandstead HH, Schulert AR, El Rooby AS (1963) Urinary excretion of zinc in patients with the syndrome of anemia, hepatosplenomegaly, dwarfism, and hypogonadism. J Lab Clin Med 61:537–549
Rajiv P, Vanathi P, Thangamani A (2018) An investigation of phytotoxicity using Eichhornia mediated zinc oxide nanoparticles on Helianthus annuus. Biocatal Agric Biotechnol 16:419–424. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BCAB.2018.09.017
Rink L, Gabriel P (2000) Zinc and the immune system. Proc Nutr Soc 59:541–552. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0029665100000781
Sabir S, Arshad M, Chaudhari SK (2014) Zinc oxide nanoparticles for revolutionizing agriculture: synthesis and applications. Sci World J 2014:8–8. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/925494
Schuhmacher M, Domingo JL, Llobet JM, Corbella J (1993) Chromium, copper, and zinc concentrations in edible vegetables grown in Tarragona Province, Spain. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 50. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00191239
Shukla S, Bhargava A, Chatterjee A, Srivastava J, Singh N, Singh SP (2006) Mineral profile and variability in vegetable amaranth (Amaranthus tricolor). Plant Foods Hum Nutr 61:23–28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11130-006-0004-x
Singh M, Singh N (1983) Response of wheat (Triticum aestivum) and pearl-millet (Pennistum americanum) to zinc fertilizers on two soils. Fertil Res 4:13–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01049662
Sruthi S, Ashtami J, Mohanan PV (2018) Biomedical application and hidden toxicity of zinc oxide nanoparticles. Mater Today Chem 10:175–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtchem.2018.09.008
Tao Z, Wang D, Chang X et al (2018) Effects of zinc fertilizer and short-term high temperature stress on wheat grain production and wheat flour proteins. J Integr Agric 17:1979–1990. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2095-3119(18)61911-2
UK Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (2000) Monitoring and surveillance of non-radioactive contaminants in the aquatic environment and activities regulating the disposal of wastes at sea, 1997. Aquatic environment monitoring report number 52. UK Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Lowestoft
US EPA (1983) Methods for chemical analysis of water and waste. EPA Report 600/4-79-020. Office of Water, US Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati
US EPA (1993) Reference dose (RfD): description and use in health risk assessments, Background Document 1A. US Environmental Protection Agency, United States of America
US EPA (2005) Zinc and Compounds CASRN 7440-66-6
US EPA (2015) Regional Screening Levels (RSLs) - User’s guide. In: US EPA. https://www.epa.gov/risk/regional-screening-levels-rsls-users-guide. Accessed 2 Feb 2020
USEPA (2005) Characterizing risk and hazard. In: Human Health Risk Assessment Protocol for Hazardous Waste Combustion Facilities. United States Environmental Protection Agency, USA, pp 1–14
WHO (1987) Principles for the safety assessment of food additives and contaminants in food
Wissuwa M, Ismail AM, Graham RD (2008) Rice grain zinc concentrations as affected by genotype, native soil-zinc availability, and zinc fertilization. Plant Soil 306:37–48. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-007-9368-4
Wong KW, Yap CK, Nulit R, Hamzah MS, Chen SK, Cheng WH, Karami A, al-Shami SA (2017) Effects of anthropogenic activities on the heavy metal levels in the clams and sediments in a tropical river. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24:116–134. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-7951-z
Wong KW, Yap CK, Nulit R et al (2019) Zn in vegetables : a review and some insights. Integr Food Nutr Metab 6:1–7. https://doi.org/10.15761/IFNM.1000245
Yaacob A, Chee Kong Y, Nulit R et al (2018) Assessment of health risks of the toxic Cd and Pb between leafy and fruit vegetables collected from selected farming areas of Peninsular Malaysia. Integr Food Nutr Metab 5. https://doi.org/10.15761/IFNM.1000215
Yap CK, Ismail A, Tan SG, Omar H (2002) Correlations between speciation of Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn in sediment and their concentrations in total soft tissue of green-lipped mussel Perna viridis from the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia. Environ Int 28:117–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-4120(02)00015-6
Zhang X, Yang L, Li Y, Li H, Wang W, Ye B (2012) Impacts of lead/zinc mining and smelting on the environment and human health in China. Environ Monit Assess 184:2261–2273. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-011-2115-6
Zheng N, Wang Q, Zheng D (2007) Health risk of Hg, Pb, Cd, Zn, and Cu to the inhabitants around Huludao Zinc Plant in China via consumption of vegetables. Sci Total Environ 383:81–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2007.05.002
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance provided by Mr. Zainal Zahari in AAS analysis at Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia.
Funding
The authors gratefully acknowledge Graduate Research Fellowship granted to Mr Koe Wei Wong by School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia. We also acknowledge the research funding provided through Putra Grant Scheme (Vote no.: 9675900), granted by Universiti Putra Malaysia.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
KWW conceptualized and planned the study; performed the fieldwork, experiments and data analysis; and prepared the original draft of the manuscript. CKY supervised the study, acquired funding and reviewed and edited the manuscript. AY performed the fieldwork and data analysis. RN, HO, AZA, MS, ARB, SAAS, MSaleem and HOkamura reviewed and provided valuable advices in the writing process of this manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval
Not applicable
Consent to participate
Not applicable
Consent for publication
Not applicable
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Lotfi Aleya
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Wong, K.W., Yap, C.K., Yaacob, A. et al. Bioaccumulation of zinc in edible tropical vegetables in Peninsular Malaysia and its human health risk assessment based on various ethnicities in Malaysia. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28, 39110–39125 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-13361-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-13361-3