Abstract
Titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles (NPs) are employed as an ultraviolet filter in sunscreen products because of their high ultraviolet absorptivity. However, sunscreen sprays may pose health risks due to the toxicity of inhaled TiO2 NPs. Therefore, we estimated the potential human health risk posed by inhaled TiO2 NPs emitted from sunscreen sprays. The physiology-based lung model was employed to predict the lung TiO2 NPs burden caused by long-term exposure. A Hill-based dose–response model described the relationship between lung inflammation and TiO2 NP accumulation. The Weibull threshold model was used to estimate the threshold amount of accumulation inducing 0.5% of the maximum increase in neutrophils. The potential health risk was assessed using a hazard quotient–based probabilistic risk model. All data obtained to date indicate that application of sunscreen sprays poses no significant health risk. However, using data simulations based on the threshold criterion, we discovered that in terms of practical strategies for preventing the risks posed by inhaled TiO2 NPs emitted from spray products, the suggested daily use amount and pressing number are 40 g (95% confidence interval: 11–146 g) and 66 (18–245), respectively. In this study, we successfully translated the potential health risk of long-term exposure to NP-containing sunscreen sprays and recommendations for daily application into mechanistic insights.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
ACGIH (2007) documentation of the threshold limit values and biological exposure indices. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati
Albers P, Maier M, Reisinger M, Hannebauer B, Weinand R (2015) Physical boundaries within aggregates–differences between amorphous, para-crystalline, and crystalline Structures. Cryst Res Technol 50:846–865. https://doi.org/10.1002/crat.201500040
Autier P, Boniol M, Severi G, Doré J-F (2001) Quantity of sunscreen used by European students. Br J Dermatol 144:288–291. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2133.2001.04016.x
Autier P, Boniol M, Doré J-F (2007) Sunscreen use and increased duration of intentional sun exposure: still a burning issue. Int J Cancer 121:1–5. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijc.22745
Baan R, Straif K, Grosse Y, Secretan B, El Ghissassi F, Cogliano V (2006) Carcinogenicity of carbon black, titanium dioxide, and talc. Lancet Oncol 7:295–296. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1470-2045(06)70651-9
Baranowska-Wójcik E, Szwajgier D, Oleszczuk P, Winiarska-Mieczan A (2020) Effects of titanium dioxide nanoparticles exposure on human health-a review. Biol Trace Elem Res 193:118–129. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-019-01706-6
Bech-Thomsen N, Wulf HC (1993) Sunbathers’ application of sunscreen is probably inadequate to obtain the sun protection factor assigned to the preparation. Photodermatol Photoimmunol Photomed 9(6):242–244 https://www.altmetric.com/details/57141353
Bourikas K, Kordulis C, Lycourghiotis A (2014) Titanium dioxide (anatase and rutile): surface chemistry, liquid-solid interface chemistry, and scientific synthesis of supported catalysts. Chem Rev 114:9754–9823. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr300230q
Cao Y (2018) The toxicity of nanoparticles to human endothelial cells. In: Saquib Q, Faisal M, Al-Khedhairy AA, Alatar AA (eds) Cellular and molecular toxicology of nanoparticles. Springer, Heidelberg, pp 59–69. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72041-8_4
Diffey BL (1996) People do not apply enough sunscreen for protection. BMJ. 313(7062):942. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.313.7062.942
Ding Y, Kuhlbusch TA, Van Tongeren M, Jiménez AS, Tuinman I, Chen R, Alvarez IL, Mikolajczyk U, Nickel C, Meyer J, Kaminski H, Wohlleben W, Stahlmecke B, Clavaguera S, Riediker M (2017) Airborne engineered nanomaterials in the workplace—a review of release and worker exposure during nanomaterial production and handling processes. J Hazard Mater 322:17–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2016.04.075
Dréno B, Alexis A, Chuberre B, Marinovich M (2019) Safety of titanium dioxide nanoparticles in cosmetics. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 33:34–46. https://doi.org/10.1111/jdv.15943
Escobar-Chavez JJ, Merino-Sanjuan V, Lopez-Cervantes M, Urban-Morlan Z, Pinon-Segundo E, Quintanar-Guerrero D, Ganem-Quintanar A (2008) The tape-stripping technique as a method for drug quantification in skin. J Pharm Pharm Sci 11(1):104–130. https://doi.org/10.18433/J3201Z
EWG (Environmental Working Group) (2017) EWG’s 2017 Guide to Safer Sunscreens. https://www.ewg.org/sunscreen/report/executive-summary/. (accessed 17.1.19)
EWG (Environmental Working Group) (2018) EWG’s Sunscreen Guide: EWG’s 13th Annual Guide to Sunscreens. Enviromental Working Group. https://www.ewg.org/sunscreen/report/executive-summary/. Accessed 18.10.18
Fang Y, Lu X, Chen W (2017) Application of nano-TiO2 in cosmetics. Gen Chem 3:125–129. https://doi.org/10.21127/yaoyigc20160007
Filipe P, Silva JN, Silva R, Cirne de Castro JL, Marques Gomes M, Alves LC, Santus R, Pinheiro T (2009) Stratum corneum is an effective barrier to TiO2 and ZnO nanoparticle percutaneous absorption. Skin Pharmacol Physiol 22(5):266–275. https://doi.org/10.1159/000235554
Furukawa F, Doi Y, Suguro M, Morita O, Kuwahara H, Masunaga T, Hatakeyama Y, Mori F (2011) Lack of skin carcinogenicity of topically applied titanium dioxide nanoparticles in the mouse. Food Chem Toxicol 49(4):744–749. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2010.11.036
Geiser M, Rothen-Rutishauser B, Kapp N, Schürch S, Kreyling W, Schulz H, Semmler M, Hof VI, Heyder J, Gehr P (2005) Ultrafine particles cross cellular membranes by nonphagocytic mechanisms in lungs and in cultured cells. Environ Health Perspect 113:1555–1560. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.8006
Geiser M, Casaulta M, Kupferschmid B, Schulz H, Semmler-Behnke M, Kreyling W (2008) The role of macrophages in the clearance of inhaled ultrafine titanium dioxide particles. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 38:371–376. https://doi.org/10.1165/rcmb.2007-0138OC
Gottlieb A, Bourget TD, Lowe NJ (1997) Sunscreens: effects of amounts of application of sun protection factors. In: Lowe NJ, Shaat NA, Pathak MA (eds) Sunscreens: development, evaluation, and regulatory aspects. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp 583–588
Gustafsson Å, Lindstedt E, Elfsmark LS, Bucht A (2011) Lung exposure of titanium dioxide nanoparticles induces innate immune activation and long-lasting lymphocyte response in the Dark Agouti rat. J Immunotoxicol 8:111–121. https://doi.org/10.3109/1547691X.2010.546382
Hagens WI, Oomen AG, de Jong WH, Cassee FR, Sips AJAM (2007) What do we (need to) know about the kinetic properties of nanoparticles in the body? Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 49(3):217–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yrtph.2007.07.006
Heinrich U, Rittinghausen S, Creutzenberg O, Bellmann B, Koch W, Levsen K (1995) Chronic inhalation exposure of Wistar rats and two different strains of mice to diesel engine exhaust, carbon black, and titanium dioxide. Inhal Toxicol 7:533–556. https://doi.org/10.3109/08958379509015211
Hou J, Wang L, Wang C, Zhang S, Liu H, Li S, Wang X (2019) Toxicity and mechanisms of action of titanium dioxide nanoparticles in living organisms. J Environ Sci 75:40–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2018.06.010
Hussain S, Vanoirbeek JAJ, Luyts K, De Vooght V, Verbeken E, Thomassen LCJ, Martens JA, Dinsdale D, Boland S, Marano F, Nemery B, Hoet PHM (2011) Lung exposure to nanoparticles modulates an asthmatic response in a mouse model. Eur Respir J 37:299–309 https://erj.ersjournals.com/content/37/2/299
Jonasson S, Gustafsson A, Koch B, Bucht A (2013) Inhalation exposure of nano-scaled titanium dioxide (TiO2) particles alters the inflammatory responses in asthmatic mice. Inhal Toxicol 25:179–191. https://doi.org/10.3109/08958378.2013.770939
Kan H, Wu Z, Young SH, Chen TH, Cumpston JL, Chen F, Kashon ML, Castranova V (2012) Pulmonary exposure of rats to ultrafine titanium dioxide enhances cardiac protein phosphorylation and substance P synthesis in nodose ganglia. Nanotoxicol 6:736–745. https://doi.org/10.3109/17435390.2011.611915
Kessler R (2011) Engineered nanoparticles in consumer products: understanding a new ingredient. Environ Health Perspect 119(3):A120–A125. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.119-a120
Kobayashi N, Naya M, Endoh S, Maru J, Yamamoto K, Nakanishi J (2009) Comparative pulmonary toxicity study of nano-TiO2 particles of different sizes and agglomerations in rats: different short- and long-term post-instillation result. Toxicology 264:110–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tox.2009.08.002
Kuhlbusch TAJ, Wijnhoven SWP, Haase A (2018) Nanomaterial exposures for worker, consumer and the general public. NanoImpact 10:11–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.impact.2017.11.003
Lee JH, Lee SB, Bae GN, Jeon KS, Yoon JU, Ji JH, Sung JH, Lee BG, Lee JH, Yang JS, Kim HY, Kang CS, Yu IJ (2010) Exposure assessment of carbon nanotube manufacturing workplaces. Inhal Toxicol 22(5):369–381. https://doi.org/10.3109/08958370903367359
Li Y, Li J, Yin J, Li W, Kang C, Huang Q, Li Q (2010) Systematic influence induced by 3 nm titanium dioxide following intratracheal instillation of mice. J Nanosci Nanotechnol 10(12):8544–8549. https://doi.org/10.1166/jnn.2010.2690
Liao CM, Chiang YH, Chio CP (2008) Model-based assessment for human inhalation exposure risk to airborne nano/fine titanium dioxide particles. Sci Total Environ 407(1):165–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.09.028
Liao CM, Chiang YH, Chio CP (2009) Assessing the airborne titanium dioxide nanoparticle-related exposure hazard at workplace. J Hazard Mater 162(1):57–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.05.020
Ling MP, Chio CP, Chou WC, Chen WY, Hsieh NH, Lin YJ, Liao CM (2011) Assessing the potential exposure risk and control for airborne titanium dioxide and carbon black nanoparticles in the workplace. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 18(6):877–889. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-011-0447-y
Liu R, Yin L, Pu Y, Liang G, Zhang J, Su Y, Xiao Z, Ye B (2009) Pulmonary toxicity induced by three forms of titanium dioxide nanoparticles via intra-tracheal instillation in rats. Prog Nat Sci 19(5):573–579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnsc.2008.06.020
Lomer MCE, Thompson RPH, Powell JJ (2002) Fine and ultrafine particles of the diet: influence on the mucosal immune response and association with Crohn’s disease. Proc Nutr Soc 61(01):123–130. https://doi.org/10.1079/PNS2001134
Lorenz C, Hagendorfer H, von Goetz N, Kaegi R, Gehrig R, Ulrich A, Scheringer M, Hungerbühler K (2011) Nanosized aerosols from consumer sprays: experimental analysis and exposure modeling for four commercial products. J Nanopart Res 13:3377–3391. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11051-011-0256-8
Lynch I, Dawson KA (2008) Protein-nanoparticle interactions. Nano Today 3:40–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1748-0132(08)70014-8
Ma-Hock L, Burkhardt S, Strauss V, Gamer AO, Wiench K, van Ravenzwaay B, Landsiedel R (2009) Development of a short-term inhalation test in the rat using nano-titanium dioxide as a model substance. Inhal Toxicol 21:102–118. https://doi.org/10.1080/08958370802361057
Matta MK, Zusterzeel R, Pilli NR, Patel V, Volpe DA, Florian J, Oh L, Bashaw E, Zineh I, Sanabria C, Kemp S, Godfrey A, Adah S, Coelho S, Wang J, Furlong LA, Ganley C, Michele T, Strauss DG (2019) Effect of sunscreen application under maximal use conditions on plasma concentration of sunscreen active ingredients: a randomized clinical trial. J Am Med Assoc 321:2082–2091 https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/2733085
Mazzuckelli LF, Methner MM, Birch ME, Evans DE, Ku BK, Crouch K, Hoover MD (2007) Identification and characterization of potential sources of worker exposure to carbon nanofibers during polymer composite laboratory operations. J Occup Environ Hyg 4(12):D125–D130. https://doi.org/10.1080/15459620701683871
Medina-Reyes EI, Delgado-Buenrostro NL, Déciga-Alcaraz A, Freyre-Fonseca V, Flores-Flores JO, Hernández-Pando R, Barrios-Payán J, Carrero JC, Sánchez-Pérez Y, García-Cuéllar CM, Vaca-Paniagua F, Chirino YI (2019) Titanium dioxide nanofibers induce angiogenic markers and genomic instability in lung cells leading to a highly dedifferentiated and fibrotic tumor formation in a xenograft model. Environ Sci Nano 6:286–304. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8EN01078A
Methner M, Hodson L, Dames A, Geraci C (2010) Nanoparticle emission assessment technique (NEAT) for the identification and measurement of potential inhalation exposure to engineered nanomaterials—part b: results from 12 field studies. J Occup Environ Hyg 7(3):163–176. https://doi.org/10.1080/15459620903508066
MHW (2007) DOH96-HP-1801: compilation of exposure factors. Ministry of Health and Welfare, Taipei, Taiwan ROC. (In Chinese). https://docsplayer.com/26101974-%E5%8F%B0%E7%81%A3%E4%B8%80%E8%88%AC%E6%B0%91%E7%9C%BE%E6%9A%B4%E9%9C%B2%E5%8F%83%E6%95%B8%E5%BD%99%E7%B7%A8.html. Accessed 20.4.18
Miller MR, Raftis JB, Langrish JP, McLean SG, Samutrtai P, Connell SP, Wilson S, Vesey AT, Fokkens PHB, Boere AJF, Krystek P, Campbell CJ, Hadoke PWF, Donaldson K, Cassee FR, Newby DE, Duffin R, Mills NL (2017) Inhaled nanoparticles accumulate at sites of vascular disease. ACS Nano 11:4542–4552. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.6b08551
Monteiro-Riviere NA, Wiench K, Landsiedel R, Schulte S, Inman AO, Riviere JE (2011) Safety evaluation of sunscreen formulations containing titanium dioxide and zinc oxide nanoparticles in UVB sunburned skin: an in vitro and in vivo study. Toxicol Sci 123(1):264–280. https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kfr148
Mühlfeld C, Geiser M, Kapp N, Gehr P, Rothen-Rutishauser B (2007) Re-evaluation of pulmonary titanium dioxide nanoparticle distribution using the “relative deposition index”: evidence for clearance through microvasculature. Part Fibre Toxicol 4:7. https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-8977-4-7
Multhoff G, Molls M, Radons J (2012) Chronic inflammation in cancer development. Front Immunol 2:98. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2011.00098
Nazarenko Y, Han TW, Lioy PJ, Mainelis G (2011) Potential for exposure to engineered nanoparticles from nanotechnology-based consumer spray products. J Expos Sci Environ Epidemiol 21:515–528. https://doi.org/10.1038/jes.2011.10
Nemmar A, Melghit K, Al-Salam S, Zia S, Dhanasekaran S, Attoub S, Al-Amrie I, Ali BH (2011) Acute respiratory and systemic toxicity of pulmonary exposure to rutile Fe-doped TiO2 nanorods. Toxicology 279:167–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tox.2010.10.007
NIOSH (2011) Current Intelligence Bulletin 63: occupational exposure to titanium dioxide. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Washington. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2011-160/default.html. Accessed 31.7.19
Noël A, Maghni K, Cloutier Y, Dion C, Wilkinson KJ, Hallé S, Tardif R, Truchon G (2012) Effects of inhaled nano-TiO2 aerosols showing two distinct agglomeration states on rat lungs. Toxicol Lett 214:109–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2012.08.019
Noël A, Charbonneau M, Cloutier Y, Tardif R, Truchon G (2013) Rat pulmonary responses to inhaled nano-TiO2: effect of primary particle size and agglomeration state. Part Fibre Toxicol 10(1):48. https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-8977-10-48
Oberdörster G, Ferin J, Lehnert BE (1994) Correlation between particle size, in vivo particle persistence, and lung injury. Environ Health Perspect 102:173–179. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.102-1567252
Oberdörster G, Sharp Z, Atudorei V, Elder A, Gelein R, Lunts A, Kreyling W, Cox C (2002) Extrapulmonary translocation of ultrafine carbon particles following whole-body inhalation exposure of rats. J Toxicol Environ Health A 65:1531–1543. https://doi.org/10.1080/00984100290071658
Park J, Ham S, Jang M, Lee J, Kim S, Kim S, Lee K, Park D, Kwon J, Kim H, Kim P, Choi K, Yoon C (2017) Spatial-temporal dispersion of aerosolized nanoparticles during the use of consumer spray products and estimates of inhalation exposure. Environ Sci Technol 51(13):7624–7638. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b00211
Rossi EM, Pylkkänen L, Koivisto AJ, Vippola M, Jensen KA, Miettinen M, Sirola K, Nykäsenoja H, Karisola P, Stjernvall T, Vanhala E, Kiilunen M, Pasanen P, Mäkinen M, Hämeri K, Joutsensaari J, Tuomi T, Jokiniemi J, Wolff H, Savolainen K, Matikainen S, Alenius H (2010a) Airway exposure to silica-coated TiO2 nanoparticles induces pulmonary neutrophilia in mice. Toxicol Sci 113(2):422–433. https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kfp254
Rossi EM, Pylkkänen L, Koivisto AJ, Nykasenoja H, Wolff H, Savolainen K, Alenius H (2010b) Inhalation exposure to nanosized and fine TiO2 particles inhibits features of allergic asthma in a murine model. Part Fibre Toxicol 7(1):1–14. https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-8977-7-35
Roursgaard M, Jensen KA, Poulsen SS, Jensen NEV, Poulsen LK, Hammer M, Nielsen GD, Larsen ST (2011) Acute and subchronic airway inflammation after intratracheal instillation of quartz and titanium dioxide agglomerates in mice. Sci World J 11:801–825. https://doi.org/10.1100/tsw.2011.67
Sadrieh N, Wokovich AM, Gopee NV, Zheng J, Haines D, Parmiter D, Siitonen PH, Cozart CR, Patri AK, McNeil SE, Howard PC, Doub WH, Buhse LF (2010) Lack of significant dermal penetration of titanium dioxide from sunscreen formulations containing nano- and submicron-size TiO2 particles. Toxicol Sci 115(1):156–166. https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kfq041
Saffiotti U, Stinson SF (1988) Lung cancer induction by crystalline silica: relationships to granulomatous reactions and host factors. J Environ Sci Health C 6(2):197–212. https://doi.org/10.1080/10590508809373350
Sagawa Y, Futakuchi M, Xu J, Fukamachi K, Sakai Y, Ikarashi Y, Nishimura T, Suzui M, Tsuda H, Morita A (2012) Lack of promoting effect of titanium dioxide particles on chemically-induced skin carcinogenesis in rats andmice. J Toxicol Sci 37(2):317–327. https://doi.org/10.2131/jts.37.317
Sager TM, Kommineni C, Castranova V (2008) Pulmonary response to intratracheal instillation of ultrafine versus fine titanium dioxide: role of particle surface area. Part Fibre Toxicol 5:17. https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-8977-5-17
SCCS (2015) The SCCS notes of guidance for the testing of cosmetic ingredients and their safety evaluation. Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety, European Commission, City of Brussels. https://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/consumer_safety/docs/sccs_o_190.pdf. Accessed 13.7.20
SCCS (2018) Opinion on titanium dioxide (nano form) as UV-filter in sprays. Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety, European Commission, City of Brussels. https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01695521/document. Accessed 12.8.18
Shi H, Magaye R, Castranov V, Zhao J (2013) Titanium dioxide nanoparticles: a review of current toxicological data. Part Fibre Toxicol 10:15. https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-8977-10-15
Stenberg C, Larkö O (1985) Sunscreen application and its importance for the sun protection factor. Arch Dermatol 121:1400–1402. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004210100484
Stöber W, Morrow PE, Morawietz G, Koch W, Hoover MD (1990) Developments in modeling alveolar retention of inhaled insoluble particles in rats. J Aerosol Med 3(sup 1):S-129–S-154. https://doi.org/10.1089/jam.1990.3.Suppl_1.S-129
Sun Q, Tan D, Ze Y, Sanga X, Liub X, Guia S, Chenga Z, Chenga J, Hu R, Gaoa G, Liua G, Zhua M, Zhaoa X, Shenga L, Wanga L, Tang M, Honga F (2012) Pulmotoxicological effects caused by long-term titanium dioxide nanoparticles exposure in mice. J Hazard Mater 235:47–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2012.05.072
Tang M, Zhang T, Xue Y, Wang S, Huang M, Yang Y, Lu M, Lei H, Kong L, Yuepu P (2010) Dose dependent in vivo metabolic characteristics of titanium dioxide nanoparticles. J Nanosci Nanotechnol 10:8575–8583. https://doi.org/10.1166/jnn.2010.2482
Thamrong C, Kritsa O, Seetala S, Montip T, Vichan P, Vorachai S (2006) Normal internal organ weight of Thai adults correlated to body length and body weight. J Med Assoc Thail 89(10):1702–1712 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17128847/. Accessed 30.4.18
Thompson CM, Suh M, Mittal L, Wikoff DS, Welsh B, Proctor DM (2016) Development of linear and threshold no significant risk levels for inhalation exposure to titanium dioxide using systematic review and mode of action considerations. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 80:60–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yrtph.2016.05.031
Tikuisis P, Meunier P, Jubenville C (2001) Human body surface area: measurement and prediction using three dimensional body scans. Eur J Appl Physiol 85(3–4):264–271. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004210100484
Tran CL, Jones AD, Cullen RT, Donaldson K (1999) Mathematical modeling of the retention and clearance of low-toxicity particles in the lung. Inhal Toxicol 11:1059–1076. https://doi.org/10.1080/089583799196592
Tran CL, Buchanan D, Miller BG, Jones AD, Donaldson K (2000) Mathematical modeling to predict the responses to poorly soluble particles in rat lungs. Inhal Toxicol 12:403–409. https://doi.org/10.1080/08958378.2000.11463252
Tran CL, Miller BG, Jones AD (2003) Risk assessment of inhaled particles using a physiologically based mechanistic model. Institute of Occupational Medicine Edinburgh, Edinburgh https://www.hse.gov.uk/research/rrpdf/rr141.pdf. Accessed 6.8.18
Vance ME, Marr LC (2015) Exposure to airborne engineered nanoparticles in the indoor environment. Atmos Environ 106:503–509. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.12.056
Wiemann M, Vennemann A, Blaske F, Sperling M, Karst U (2017) Silver nanoparticles in the lung: toxic effects and focal accumulation of silver in remote organs. Nanomaterials (Basel) 7:441. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano7120441
Wu F, Hicks AL (2019) Estimating human exposure to TiO2 from personal care products through a social survey approach. Integr Environ Assess Manag 16:10–16. https://doi.org/10.1002/ieam.4197
Wu J, Liu W, Xue C, Zhou S, Lan F, Bi L, Xu H, Yang X, Zeng FD (2009) Toxicity and penetration of TiO2 nanoparticles in hairless mice and porcine skin after subchronic dermal exposure. Toxicol Lett 191(1):1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2009.05.020
Xu J, Sagawa Y, Futakuchi M, Fukamachi K, Alexander DB, Furukawa F, Ikarashi Y, Uchino T, Nishimura T, Morita A, Suzui M, Tsuda H (2011) Lack of promoting effect of titanium dioxide particles on ultraviolet B-initiated skin carcinogenesis in rats. Food Chem Toxicol 49(6):1298–1302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2011.03.011
Yazdi AS, Guarda G, Riteau N, Drexler SK, Tardivel A, Couillin I, Tschopp J (2010) Nanoparticles activate the NLR pyrin domain containing 3 (Nlrp3) inflammasome and cause pulmonary inflammation through release of IL-1α and IL-1β. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 107(45):19449–19454. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1008155107
Zhang Y, Tao J, He P, Tang Y, Wang Y (2009) Bio-effects of nano-TiO2 on lungs of mice. J Biomed Eng 26:803–806 https://europepmc.org/article/med/19813615. Accessed 5.3.19
Zhang S, Li L, Gao W, Wang Y, Yao X (2016) Interventions to reduce individual exposure of elderly individuals and children to haze: a review. J Thorac Dis 8(1):E62–E68. https://doi.org/10.3978/j.issn.2072-1439.2016.01.17
Acknowledgements
The authors thank all members from Biosystems Simulation and Control Lab, National Taiwan University for logistical support during research. This manuscript was edited by Wallace Academic Editing.
Data and materials availability
All data and supporting materials of this study are included in the manuscript. The daily inhaled doses for airborne TiO2 NPs obtained from 8 commercial sunscreen spray products were provided by SCCS (2018). The dose–response data of TiO2 NPs and adverse effects in a murine model were adopted from Rossi et al. (2010a).
Funding
This study was supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology of Taiwan under Grant MOST-105-2313-B002-020-MY3.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Wei-Ming Wang: performed data collection, analyzed the data, implemented simulations, and drafted original manuscript. Chi-Yun Chen: analyzed the data and performed the research. Tien-Hsuan Lu: analyzed the data and performed the research. Ying-Fei Yang: planned the research, performed results analysis, and did supervision. Chung-Min Liao: designed the research, did supervision, and wrote the paper. All authors helped to interpret the results and provided feedback on the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Research involving human participants and animal rights
The article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.
Consent to participate
Consent to participate is not required.
Consent for publication
All authors gave their consent for publication.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Lotfi Aleya
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
ESM 1
(DOCX 964 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Wang, WM., Chen, CY., Lu, TH. et al. Estimates of lung burden risk associated with long-term exposure to TiO2 nanoparticles as a UV-filter in sprays. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28, 32460–32474 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-12924-8
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-12924-8