Abstract
Metal mining and smelting activities can introduce a substantial amount of potentially toxic elements (PTE) into the environment that can persist for an extended period. That can limit the productivity of the land and creates dangerous effects on ecosystem services. The effectiveness of wheat straw biochar to immobilize Cd in contaminated soil due to metal smelting activities was investigated in this study. The biochar carbon stability and long-term provisioning of services depend on the biochar production conditions, nature of the feedstock, and the biotic and abiotic environmental conditions in which the biochar is being used. Within this context, three types of wheat straw biochar were produced using a screw reactor at 400 °C, 500 °C, and 600 °C and tested in a laboratory incubation study. Soil was amended with 2 wt% of biochar. Both fresh and aged forms of biochar were used. Biochars produced at lower temperatures were characterized by lower pH, a lower amount of stable C, and higher amounts of acidic surface functional groups than the freshly produced biochars at higher production temperatures. At the end of the 6 months of incubation time, compared to the soil only treatment, fresh and aged forms of wheat straw biochar produced at 600 °C reduced the Cd concentration in soil pore water by 22% and 15%, respectively. Our results showed that the aged forms of biochar produced at higher production temperatures (500 °C and 600 °C) immobilized Cd more efficiently than the aged forms of lower temperature biochar (400 °C). The findings of this study provide insights to choose the production parameters in wheat straw biochar production while considering their aging effect to achieve successful stabilization of Cd in contaminated soils.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this article.
References
Ahmad M, Rajapaksha AU, Lim JE, Zhang M, Bolan N, Mohan D, Vithanage M, Lee SS, Ok YS (2014) Biochar as a sorbent for contaminant management in soil and water: a review. Chemosphere 99:19–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.10.071
Bakshi S, Aller DM, Laird DA, Chintala R (2016) Comparison of the physical and chemical properties of laboratory and field-aged biochars. J Environ Qual 45:1627–1634. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2016.02.0062
Bandara T, Franks A, Xu J, Bolan N, Wang H, Tang C (2019) Technology chemical and biological immobilization mechanisms of potentially toxic elements in biochar-amended soils. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol 3389:903–978. https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2019.1642832
Bashir S, Zhu J, Fu Q, Hu H (2018) Comparing the adsorption mechanism of Cd by rice straw pristine and KOH-modified biochar. Environ Sci Pollut Res 25:11875–11883. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-1292-z
Beesley L, Moreno-Jiménez E, Gomez-Eyles JL, Harris E, Robinson B, Sizmur T (2011) A review of biochars’ potential role in the remediation, revegetation and restoration of contaminated soils. Environ Pollut 159:3269–3282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2011.07.023
Budai A, Zimmerman AR, Cowie AL, Webber JBW, Singh BP, Glaser B, Masiello CA (2013) Biochar carbon stability test method : an assessment of methods to determine biochar carbon stability
Cao T, Chen W, Yang T, He T, Liu Z, Meng J (2017) Surface characterization of aged biochar incubated in different types of soil. BioResources 12:6366–6377. https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.12.3.6366-6377
Chen D, Yu X, Song C, Pang X, Huang J, Li Y (2016) Effect of pyrolysis temperature on the chemical oxidation stability of bamboo biochar. Bioresour Technol 218:1303–1306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2016.07.112
Cheng CH, Lehmann J, Thies JE, Burton SD (2008) Stability of black carbon in soils across a climatic gradient. J Geophys Res Biogeosci 113:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JG000642
Crombie K, Mašek O, Sohi SP, Brownsort P, Cross A (2013) The effect of pyrolysis conditions on biochar stability as determined by three methods. GCB Bioenergy 5:122–131. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcbb.12030
Cross A, Sohi SP (2013) A method for screening the relative long-term stability of biochar. GCB Bioenergy 5:215–220. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcbb.12035
de la Rosa JM, Rosado M, Paneque M, Miller AZ, Knicker H (2018) Effects of aging under field conditions on biochar structure and composition: implications for biochar stability in soils. Sci Total Environ 613–614:969–976. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.09.124
Dharmakeerthi RS, Hanley K, Whitman T, Woolf D, Lehmann J (2015) Organic carbon dynamics in soils with pyrogenic organic matter that received plant residue additions over seven years. Soil Biol Biochem 88:268–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SOILBIO.2015.06.003
Dong X, Li G, Lin Q, Zhao X (2017) Quantity and quality changes of biochar aged for 5 years in soil under field conditions. Catena 159:136–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2017.08.008
Egene CE, Van Poucke R, Ok YS, Meers E, Tack FMG (2018) Impact of organic amendments ( biochar , compost and peat ) on Cd and Zn mobility and solubility in contaminated soil of the Campine region after three years. Sci Total Environ 626:195–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.01.054
Enders A, Lehmann J (2017) Proximate analyses for characterising biochar. In: Biochar: a guide to analytical methods, 1st edn. CSIRO Publishing, Clayton South, Melbourne, pp 9–22
Ettler V (2016) Soil contamination near non-ferrous metal smelters : a review. Appl Geochem J 64:56–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2015.09.020
Eugenio NR, McLaughlin M, Pennock D (2018) Soil pollution: a hidden reality. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
Hardy B, Leifeld J, Knicker H, Dufey JE, Deforce K, Cornélis J (2017) Long term change in chemical properties of preindustrial charcoal particles aged in forest and agricultural temperate soil. Org Geochem 107:33–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orggeochem.2017.02.008
He E, Yang Y, Xu Z, Qiu H, Yang F, Peijnenburg WJGM, Zhang W, Qiu R, Wang S (2019) Two years of aging influences the distribution and lability of metal(loid)s in a contaminated soil amended with different biochars. Sci Total Environ 673:245–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.04.037
Heitkötter J, Marschner B (2015) Interactive effects of biochar ageing in soils related to feedstock , pyrolysis temperature, and historic charcoal production ☆. Geoderma 245–246:56–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2015.01.012
Huff MD, Lee JW (2016) Biochar-surface oxygenation with hydrogen peroxide. J Environ Manag 165:17–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2015.08.046
Kumar A, Joseph S, Tsechansky L, Privat K, Schreiter IJ, Schüth C, Graber ER (2018) Biochar aging in contaminated soil promotes Zn immobilization due to changes in biochar surface structural and chemical properties. Sci Total Environ 626:953–961. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.01.157
Lawrinenko M, Laird DA, Johnson RL, Jing D (2016) Accelerated aging of biochars: impact on anion exchange capacity. Carbon N Y 103:217–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2016.02.096
Lehmann J, Joseph S (eds) (2009) Biochar for environmental management: science and technology. Earthscan, London & Sterling, p 416
Lian F, Xing B (2017) Black carbon (biochar) in water/soil environments: molecular structure, sorption, stability, and potential risk. Environ Sci Technol 51:13517–13532. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b02528
Liang B, Lehmann J, Solomon D, Sohi S, Thies JE, Skjemstad JO, Luizão FJ, Engelhard MH, Neves EG, Wirick S (2008) Stability of biomass-derived black carbon in soils. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 72:6069–6078. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2008.09.028
Liang Y, Cao X, Zhao L, Arellano E (2014) Biochar- and phosphate-induced immobilization of heavy metals in contaminated soil and water: implication on simultaneous remediation of contaminated soil and groundwater. Environ Sci Pollut Res 21:4665–4674. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-013-2423-1
Lomaglio T, Hattab-Hambli N, Miard F, Lebrun M, Nandillon R, Trupiano D, Scippa GS, Gauthier A, Motelica-Heino M, Bourgerie S, Morabito D (2018) Cd, Pb, and Zn mobility and (bio)availability in contaminated soils from a former smelting site amended with biochar. Environ Sci Pollut Res 25:25744–25756. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-9521-4
Mašek O (2016) Biochar in thermal and thermochemical biorefineries—production of biochar as a coproduct. In: Handbook of biofuels production. Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, pp 655–671
Mašek O, Brownsort P, Cross A, Sohi S (2013) Influence of production conditions on the yield and environmental stability of biochar. In: Fuel, pp 151–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2011.08.044
Meers E, Unamuno V, Vandegehuchte M, Vanbroekhoven K, Geebelen W, Samson R, Vangronsveld J, Diels L, Ruttens A, Du Laing G, Tack F (2005) Soil-solution speciation of Cd as affected by soil characteristics in unpolluted and polluted soils. Environ Toxicol Chem 24:499–509. https://doi.org/10.1897/04-231R.1
Meers E, Du Laing G, Unamuno V, Ruttens A, Vangronsveld J, Tack FMG, Verloo MG (2007) Comparison of cadmium extractability from soils by commonly used single extraction protocols. Geoderma 141:247–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2007.06.002
Meers E, Van Slycken S, Adriaensen K, Ruttens A, Vangronsveld J, Du Laing G, Witters N, Thewys T, Tack FMG (2010) The use of bio-energy crops (Zea mays) for ‘phytoattenuation’ of heavy metals on moderately contaminated soils : a field experiment. Chemosphere 78:35–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.08.015
Mia S, Dijkstra FA, Singh B (2017) Long-term aging of biochar : a molecular understanding with agricultural and environmental implications, 1st edn. Advances in Agronomy Elsevier Inc. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.agron.2016.10.001
Moreno-Castilla C, Ferro-Garcia MA, Joly JP, Bautista-Toledo I, Carrasco-Marin F, Rivera-Utrilla J (1995) Activated carbon surface modifications by nitric acid, hydrogen peroxide, and ammonium peroxydisulfate treatments. Langmuir 11:4386–4392
Mukherjee A, Zimmerman AR, Hamdan R, Cooper WT (2014) Physicochemical changes in pyrogenic organic matter ( biochar ) after 15 months of field aging. 5194. https://doi.org/10.5194/se-5-693-2014
Nachenius RW, Ronsse F, Venderbosch RH, Prins W (2013) Biomass pyrolysis. In: Chemical engineering for renewables conversion. Elsevier Inc., pp 75–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-386505-2.00002-X
Oustriere N, Marchand L, Rosette G, Friesl-Hanl W, Mench M (2017) Wood-derived-biochar combined with compost or iron grit for in situ stabilization of Cd, Pb, and Zn in a contaminated soil. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24:7468–7481. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-8361-6
Palansooriya KN, Shaheen S, Chen SS, Tsang DCW, Hashimoto Y, Hou D, Bolan NS, Rinklebe J, Ok YS (2020) Soil amendments for immobilization of potentially toxic elements in contaminated soils : a critical review. Environ Int 134:105046. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.105046
Qi F, Lamb D, Naidu R, Bolan NS, Yan Y, Sik Y, Mahmudur M, Choppala G (2018) Cadmium solubility and bioavailability in soils amended with acidic and neutral biochar. Sci Total Environ 611:1457–1466. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.08.228
Qian L, Chen M, Chen B (2015) Competitive adsorption of cadmium and aluminum onto fresh and oxidized biochars during aging processes. J Soils Sediments:1130–1138. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-015-1073-y
Rauret G, López-Sánchez JF, Sahuquillo A, Rubio R, Davidson C, Ure A, Quevauviller P (1999) Improvement of the BCR three step sequential extraction procedure prior to the certification of new sediment and soil reference materials. J Environ Monit 1:57–61. https://doi.org/10.1039/a807854h
Rechberger MV, Kloss S, Rennhofer H, Tintner J, Watzinger A, Soja G, Lichtenegger H, Zehetner F (2017) Changes in biochar physical and chemical properties : accelerated biochar aging in an acidic soil. Carbon N Y 115:209–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2016.12.096
Reverchon F, Yan H, Ho TY, Yan G, Wang J Xu Z et al (2015) A preliminary assessment of the potential of using an acacia—biochar system for spent mine site rehabilitation. Environ Sci Pollut Res 22(3):2138–2144
Ronsse F, Van Hecke S, Dickinson D, Prins W (2013) Production and characterization of slow pyrolysis biochar : influence of feedstock type and pyrolysis conditions. GCB Bioenergy 5:104–115. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcbb.12018
Ronsse F, Nachenius RW, Prins W (2015) Carbonization of biomass. In: Recent advances in thermo-chemical conversion of biomass. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 293–324
Singh B, Fang Y, Cowie BCC, Thomsen L (2014) NEXAFS and XPS characterisation of carbon functional groups of fresh and aged biochars. Org Geochem 77:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orggeochem.2014.09.006
Sun J, Lian F, Liu Z, Zhu L, Song Z (2014) Ecotoxicology and environmental safety biochars derived from various crop straws : characterization and Cd ( II ) removal potential. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 106:226–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2014.04.042
Tan X, Liu Y, Gu Y, Zeng G, Wang X, Hu X, Sun Z, Yang Z (2015) Immobilization of Cd(II) in acid soil amended with different biochars with a long term of incubation. Environ Sci Pollut Res 22:12597–12604. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-4523-6
Tessier A, Campbell PGC, Bisson M (1979) Sequential extraction procedure for the speciation of particulate trace metals. Anal Chem 51:844–851
Van Poucke R, Ainsworth J, Maeseele M, Ok YS, Meers E, Tack FMG (2018) Chemical stabilization of Cd-contaminated soil using biochar. Appl Geochem 88:122–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2017.09.001
Van Poucke R, Meers E, Tack FMG (2020) Leaching behavior of Cd, Zn and nutrients (K, P, S) from a contaminated soil as affected by amendment with biochar. Chemosphere 245:125561. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.125561
Van Ranst E, Verloo M, Demeyer A, Pauwels J (1999) Manual for the soil chemistry and fertility laboratory: analytical methods for soils and plants equipment, and management of consumables
Wang HY, Chen P, Zhu YG, Cen K, Sun GX (2019) Simultaneous adsorption and immobilization of As and Cd by birnessite-loaded biochar in water and soil. Environ Sci Pollut Res 26(9):8575–8584. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-04315-x
Wang L, Ok YS, Tsang DCW, Alessi DS, Rinklebe J, Wang H, Mašek O, Hou R, O’Connor D, Hou D (2020) New trends in biochar pyrolysis and modification strategies: feedstock, pyrolysis conditions, sustainability concerns and implications for soil amendment. Soil Use Manag 36:1–29. https://doi.org/10.1111/sum.12592
Weber K, Quicker P (2018) Properties of biochar. Fuel 217:240–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2017.12.054
WHO (2007) Health risks of heavy metals from long-range transboundary air pollution. World Health Organization
Xu X, Cao X, Zhao L, Wang H, Yu H, Gao B (2013) Removal of Cu, Zn, and Cd from aqueous solutions by the dairy manure-derived biochar. Environ Sci Pollut Res 20:358–368. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-012-0873-5
Xu Y, Fang Z, Tsang EP (2016) In situ immobilization of cadmium in soil by stabilized biochar-supported iron phosphate nanoparticles. Environ Sci Pollut Res 23:19164–19172. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-7117-z
Xu C, Chen H-x, Xiang Q, Zhu H-h, Wang S, Zhu Q-h, Huang D-y, Zhang Y-z (2018) Effect of peanut shell and wheat straw biochar on the availability of Cd and Pb in a soil–rice (Oryza sativa L.) system. Environ Sci Pollut Res 25:1147–1156. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-0495-z
Yang X, Liu J, McGrouther K, Huang H, Lu K, Guo X, He L, Lin X, Che L, Ye Z, Wang H (2016) Effect of biochar on the extractability of heavy metals (Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn) and enzyme activity in soil. Environ Sci Pollut Res 23:974–984. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-4233-0
Yang Y, Heaven S, Venetsaneas N, Banks CJ, Bridgwater AV (2018) Slow pyrolysis of organic fraction of municipal solid waste ( OFMSW ): characterisation of products and screening of the aqueous liquid product for anaerobic digestion. Appl Energy 213:158–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.01.018
Yu Y, Yang Y, Cheng Z, Blanco PH, Liu R, Bridgwater AV, Cai J (2016) Pyrolysis of rice husk and corn stalk in auger reactor . 1. Characterization of char and gas at various temperatures. Energy Fuel. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.6b02276
Zhao L, Cao X, Mašek O, Zimmerman A (2013) Heterogeneity of biochar properties as a function of feedstock sources and production temperatures. J Hazard Mater 256–257:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JHAZMAT.2013.04.015
Zhao M, Dai Y, Zhang M, Feng C, Qin B, Zhang W et al (2020) Mechanisms of Pb and/or Zn adsorption by different biochars: biochar characteristics, stability, and binding energies. Sci Total Environ 717:136894
Zheng R, Li C, Sun G, Xie Z, Chen J, Wu J, Wang Q (2017) The influence of particle size and feedstock of biochar on the accumulation of Cd, Zn, Pb, and As by Brassica chinensis L. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24:22340–22352. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-9854-z
Zuo X, Liu Z, Chen M (2016) Bioresource technology effect of H 2 O 2 concentrations on copper removal using the modified hydrothermal biochar. Bioresour Technol 207:262–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2016.02.032
Funding
Results incorporated in this paper received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No 721991.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
DR: Conceptualization, investigation, formal analysis, visualization, and writing original draft. FR: Investigation and writing (review and editing). RVP: Investigation and writing (review and editing). AVB, OM, EM, JW, and YY: Supervision, resources, and writing (review and editing). FR: Supervision, resources, writing (review and editing), and funding acquisition. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Zhihong Xu
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Highlights
•Severity of surface transformation after aging was high in low-temperature wheat straw biochar compared to biochar produced at higher temperatures.
•Aged wheat straw biochars performed better than the fresh biochars at 500 °C and 600 °C production temperatures, while fresh wheat straw biochar performed better than the aged form only at 400 °C.
•Alkalinity and surface functionality in wheat straw biochar played an important role in immobilization of Cd in pore water.
Supplementary Information
ESM 1
(DOCX 15 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Rathnayake, D., Rego, F., Van Poucke, R. et al. Chemical stabilization of Cd-contaminated soil using fresh and aged wheat straw biochar. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28, 10155–10166 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-11574-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-11574-6