Abstract
Chemical compositions of soil samples are multivariate in nature and provide datasets suitable for the application of multivariate factor analytical techniques. One of the analytical techniques, the positive matrix factorization (PMF), uses a weighted least square by fitting the data matrix to determine the weights of the sources based on the error estimates of each data point. In this research, PMF was employed to apportion the sources of heavy metals in 104 soil samples taken within a 1-km radius of a lead battery plant contaminated site in Changxing County, Zhejiang Province, China. The site is heavily contaminated with high concentrations of lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd). PMF successfully partitioned the variances into sources related to soil background, agronomic practices, and the lead battery plants combined with a geostatistical approach. It was estimated that the lead battery plants and the agronomic practices contributed 55.37 and 29.28 %, respectively, for soil Pb of the total source. Soil Cd mainly came from the lead battery plants (65.92 %), followed by the agronomic practices (21.65 %), and soil parent materials (12.43 %). This research indicates that PMF combined with geostatistics is a useful tool for source identification and apportionment.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Bao SD (2007) Soil agricultural chemistry analysis. China Agricultur, Beijing (in Chinese)
Bloemen ML, Markert B, Lieth H (1995) The distribution of Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn in topsoils of Osnabrück in relation to land use. Sci Total Environ 166(1):137–148
Booty WG, Resler O, McCrimmon C (2005) Mass balance modelling of priority toxic chemicals within the great lakes toxic chemical decision support system: RateCon model results for Lake Ontario and Lake Erie. Environ Model Softw 20(6):671–688
Brown AS, Brown RJ (2012) Correlations in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) concentrations in UK ambient air and implications for source apportionment. J Environ Monitor 14(8):2072–2082
Cheng HF, Hu Y (2010) Lead (Pb) isotopic fingerprinting and its applications in lead pollution studies in China: a review. Environ Pollut 158(5):1134–1146
Cloquet C, Carignan J, Libourel G, Sterckeman T, Perdrix E (2006) Tracing source pollution in soils using cadmium and lead isotopes. Environ Sci Technol 40(8):2525–2530
Compilation committee of the first China pollution source census (2011) Collected works of the first China pollution source census (V): data set of pollution source census. China Environmental Science, Beijing (in Chinese)
Dong YX, Zheng W, Zhou JX, Wang QH, Wu XY, Lu J (2007) Soil geochemical background in Zhejiang Province. Geological Publishing House, Beijing (in Chinese)
Eklund M (1995) Cadmium and lead deposition around a Swedish battery plant as recorded in oak tree rings. J Environ Qual 24(1):126–131
Facchinelli A, Sacchi E, Mallen L (2001) Multivariate statistical and GIS-based approach to identify heavy metal sources in soils. Environ Pollut 114(3):313–324
Gómez-Sagasti MT, Alkorta I, Becerril JM, Epelde L, Anza M, Garbisu C (2012) Microbial monitoring of the recovery of soil quality during heavy metal phytoremediation. Water Air Soil Pollut 223(6):3249–3262
Goovaerts P (1999) Geostatistics in soil science: state-of-the-art and perspectives. Geoderma 89(1):1–45
Guo XD, Fu BJ, Ma KM, Chen LD, Wang J (2001) Spatio-temporal variability of soil nutrients in the Zunhua plain, northern China. Phys Geogr 22(4):343–360
He L, Xu F, Yang J, Deng DW (2011) Distribution and determination of cadmium in lead-acid battery. Phys Test Chem Anal (Part B Chem Anal) 47:1024–1025 (in Chinese)
Hellström L, Persson B, Brudin L, Grawé KP, Öborn I, Järup L (2007) Cadmium exposure pathways in a population living near a battery plant. Sci Total Environ 373(2):447–455
Hopke PK (2003) Recent developments in receptor modeling. J Chemometics 17(5):255–265
Hu YA, Cheng HF (2013) Application of stochastic models in identification and apportionment of heavy metal pollution sources in the surface soils of a large-scale region. Environ Sci Technol 47(8):3752–3760
Hu Y, Liu XP, Bai JM, Shih K, Zeng EY, Cheng HF (2013) Assessing heavy metal pollution in the surface soils of a region that had undergone three decades of intense industrialization and urbanization. Environ Sci Pollut Res 20(9):6150–6159
Huang SS, Liao QL, Hua M, Wu XM, Bi KS, Yan CY, Chen B, Zhang XY (2007) Survey of heavy metal pollution and assessment of agricultural soil in Yangzhong district, Jiangsu Province, China. Chemosphere 67(11):2148–2155
Lanphear BP, Matte TD, Rogers J, Clickner RP, Dietz B, Bornschein RL et al (1998) The contribution of lead-contaminated house dust and residential soil to children’s blood lead levels: a pooled analysis of 12 epidemiologic studies. Environ Res 79(1):51–68
Li SY, Zhang QF (2011) Response of dissolved trace metals to land use/land cover and their source apportionment using a receptor model in a subtropic river, China. J Hazard Mater 190(1):205–213
Li HG, Shi JC, Wu JJ (2013) Spatial variability characteristics of soil heavy metals in the cropland and its pollution source identification around the contaminated sites. J Zhejiang Univ (Agric Life Sci) 39(3):325–334 (in Chinese)
Liang OF, Li JX, Qiu JX (2003) Harmful effects of lead on human health. Guangdong Trace Elem Sci 10(7):57–59 (in Chinese)
Linzon SN, Chai BL, Temple PJ, Pearson RG, Smith ML (1976) Lead contamination of urban soils and vegetation by emissions from secondary lead industries. Japca J Air Waste Manag 26(7):650–654
Liu XM, Wu JJ, Xu JM (2006) Characterizing the risk assessment of heavy metals and sampling uncertainty analysis in paddy field by geostatistics and GIS. Environ Pollut 141(2):257–264
Loganathan P, Hedley MJ, Gregg PEH, Currie LD (1996) Effect of phosphate fertiliser type on the accumulation and plant availability of cadmium in grassland soils. Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst 46(3):169–178
Lormphongs S, Miyashita K, Morioka I, Chaikittiporn C, Miyai N, Yamamoto H (2003) Lead exposure and blood lead level of workers in a battery manufacturing plant in Thailand. Ind Health 41(4):348–353
Malik RN, Jadoon WA, Husain SZ (2010) Metal contamination of surface soils of industrial city Sialkot, Pakistan: a multivariate and GIS approach. Environ Geochem Health 32(3):179–191
Massoudieh A, Gellis A, Banks WS, Wieczorek ME (2013) Suspended sediment source apportionment in Chesapeake Bay watershed using Bayesian chemical mass balance receptor modeling. Hydrol Process 27(24):3363–3374
Mishima S-I, Taniguchi S, Kawasaki A, Komada M (2005) Estimation of zinc and copper balance in Japanese farmland soil associated with the application of chemical fertilizers and livestock excreta. Soil Sci Plant Nutr 51(3):437–442
Nanos N, Rodríguez Martín JA (2012) Multiscale analysis of heavy metal contents in soils: spatial variability in the Duero river basin (Spain). Geoderma 189:554–562
Nicholson F, Smith S, Alloway B, Carlton-Smith C, Chambers B (2003) An inventory of heavy metals inputs to agricultural soils in England and Wales. Sci Total Environ 311(1):205–219
Norris G, Vedantham R, Wade K, Brown S, Prouty J, Foley C (2008) EPA positive matrix factorization (PMF) 3.0 fundamentals & user guide. US Environmental Protection AgencyOffice of Research and Development, Washington, DC
Paatero P (1997) Least squares formulation of robust non-negative factor analysis. Chemom Intell Lab Syst 37(1):23–35
Paatero P, Hopke PK (2009) Rotational tools for factor analytic models. J Chemometr 23(2):91–100
Pepper IL (2013) The soil health: human health nexus. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol 43(24):2617–2652
Pichtel J, Kuroiwa K, Sawyerr HT (2000) Distribution of Pb, Cd and Ba in soils and plants of two contaminated sites. Environ Pollut 110(1):171–178
Rieuwerts JS, Farago M, Bencko V (1999) Topsoil and housedust metal concentrations in the vicinity of a lead battery manufacturing plant. Environ Monit Assess 59(1):1–13
Rodríguez Martín JA, Nanos N, Grau JM, Gil L, López-Arias M (2008) Multiscale analysis of heavy metal contents in Spanish agricultural topsoils. Chemosphere 70(6):1085–1096
Rodríguez Martín JA, Carbonell MG, López Arias M, Grau Corbí JM (2009) Mercury content in topsoils, and geostatistical methods to identify anthropogenic input in the Ebro basin (Spain). Span J Agric Res 7(1):107–118
Rodríguez Martín JA, Carbonell MG, Nanos N, Gutiérrez C (2013) Source identification of soil mercury in the Spanish islands. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 64(2):171–179
Saito H, McKenna SA, Zimmerman D, Coburn TC (2005) Geostatistical interpolation of object counts collected from multiple strip transects: ordinary kriging versus finite domain kriging. Stoch Env Res Risk A 19(1):71–85
Shi JC, Wang HZ, Xu JM, Wu JJ, Liu XM, Zhu HP, Yu CL (2007) Spatial distribution of heavy metals in soils: a case study of Changxing, China. Environ Geol 52(1):1–10
State Environmental Protection Administration of China (1995) Chinese Environmental Quality Standard for Soils (GB15618–1995) (in Chinese)
Subramoney P, Karnae S, Farooqui Z, John K, Gupta AK (2013) Identification of PM2.5 sources affecting a semi-arid coastal region using a chemical mass balance model. Aerosol Air Qual Res 13(1):60–71
Sun B, Zhou SL, Zhao QG (2003) Evaluation of temporal changes of soil quality based on geostatistical analysis in the hill region of subtropical China. Geoderma 115(1):85–99
Wang QC, Ma ZW (2004) Heavy metals in chemical fertilizer and environmental risks. Rural Ecol Environ 20(2):62–64 (in Chinese)
Wei BG, Yang LS (2010) A review of heavy metal contaminations in urban soils, urban road dusts and agricultural soils from China. Microchem J 94(2):99–107
Zhang MK, Wang H, Zhang HM (2008) Distinguishing different sources of heavy metals in soils on the coastal plain of Eastern Zhejiang Province. Acta Sci Circumst 28(10):1946–1954 (in Chinese)
Zhejiang statistics bureau and Survey office of national bureau of statistics in Zhejiang (2012) Zhejiang Statistical Yearbook 2012. China Statistics, Beijing (in Chinese)
Zheng LB, Cehn WP, Jiao WT, Huang JL, Wei FX (2013) Distribution characteristics and ecological risk of Pb in soils at a lead battery plant. Environ Sci 34(9):3659–3674 (in Chinese)
Zorer ÖS, Ceylan H, Doğru M (2009) Determination of heavy metals and comparison to gross radioactivity concentration in soil and sediment samples of the Bendimahi River Basin (Van, Turkey). Water Air Soil Pollut 196:75–87
Acknowledgments
This work was jointly supported by the National High-tech R&D Program of China (863Program) (2012AA062603), the Key SQT Innovation Team of Zhejiang Province for Agro-Products Standards and Testing Technology (2010R50028), the Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China (LY13D010001), and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (41071144).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Additional information
Responsible editor: Michael Matthies
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Xue, Jl., Zhi, Yy., Yang, Lp. et al. Positive matrix factorization as source apportionment of soil lead and cadmium around a battery plant (Changxing County, China). Environ Sci Pollut Res 21, 7698–7707 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-2726-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-2726-x