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Path-Integrated X-Ray Images for Multi-Surface Digital Image Correlation (PI-DIC)

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Abstract

Background

X-ray imaging offers unique possibilities for Digital Image Correlation (DIC), opening the door for full-field deformation measurements of a test article in complex environments where optical DIC suffers severe biases or is impossible. While X-ray DIC has been performed in the past with standard DIC codes designed for optical images, the path-integrated nature of X-ray images places constraints on the experimental setup, predominantly that only a single surface of interest moves/deforms. These requirements are difficult to realize for many practical situations and limit the amount of information that can be garnered in a single test. Other X-ray based diagnostics such as Digital Volume Correlation (DVC) and Projection DVC (P-DVC) overcome these obstacles, but DVC is limited to quasi-static tests, and both DVC and P-DVC necessitate high-resolution computed tomography (CT) scan(s) and often require a potentially invasive pattern throughout the volume of the specimen.

Objective

This work presents a novel approach to measure time-resolved displacements and strains on multiple surfaces from a single series of 2D, path-integrated (PI) X-ray images, called PI-DIC.

Methods

The principle of optical flow or conservation of intensity—the foundation of DIC—was reframed for path-integrated images, for an exemplar setup comprised of two plates moving and deforming independently. Synthetic images were generated for rigid translations, rigid rotations, and uniform stretches, where each plate underwent a unique motion/deformation. Experimental specimens were fabricated (either an aluminum plate with tantalum features or a plastic plate with steel features) and the two specimens were independently translated.

Results

PI-DIC was successfully demonstrated with the synthetic images and validated with the experimental images. Prescribed displacements were recovered for each plate from the single set of path-integrated, deformed images. Errors were approximately 0.02 px for the synthetic images with 1.5% image noise, and 0.05 px for the experimental images.

Conclusions

These results provide the foundation for PI-DIC to measure motion and deformation of multiple, independent surfaces with subpixel accuracy from a single series of path-integrated X-ray images.

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Notes

  1. See MATLAB’s documentation for details of these optimizer options at https://www.mathworks.com/help/optim/ug/fminunc.html and https://www.mathworks.com/help/optim/ug/optimization-options-reference.html, accesseed 19 December 2022.

  2. See https://www.mathworks.com/help/images/image-coordinate-systems.html for more information on image coordinates used in MATLAB.

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank Dr. D. Tom Seidl, Dr. Phillip Reu, and Dr. Daniel Turner for helpful discussion and feedback in the initial stages of development of PI-DIC; Andrew Lentfer and Dayna Obenauf for assistance collecting the experimental data; Kyle Thompson and Ryan Goodner for help regarding radiograph image processing; and Dr. Dan Rohe, Dr. John Miers, and Dr. Linda Hansen for careful review and feedback of the manuscript.

Funding

This article has been authored by an employee of National Technology and Engineering Solutions of Sandia, LLC under contract DE-NA0003525 with the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). The employee owns all right, title and interest in and to the article and is solely responsible for its contents. The United States Government retains and the publisher, by accepting for publication, acknowledges that the United States Government retains a non-exclusive, paid-up, irrevocable, world-wide license to publish or reproduce the published form of this article or allow others to do so, for United States Government purposes. The DOE will provide public access to these results of federally sponsored research in accordance with the DOE Public Access Plan, https://www.energy.gov/downloads/doe-public-access-plan. This paper describes objective technical results and analysis. Any subjective views or opinions that might be expressed in the paper do not necessarily represent the views of the U.S. Department of Energy or the United States Government.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Diagnostics for Extreme Environments and Hypersonics, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, USA

    E.M.C Jones, S.S. Fayad & B.R. Halls

  2. Non-Destructive Evaluation and Development, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, USA

    E.C. Quintana

  3. Fire Science and Technology, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, USA

    C. Winters

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Contributions

Author contributions are recognized using the Contributor Roles Taxonomy (CRediT), https://doi.org/10.1002/leap.1210. Elizabeth M. C. Jones: Conceptualization; Data curation; Formal analysis; Investigation; Methodology; Software; Visualization; Writing—Original draft; Writing—Review & editing. Samuel S. Fayad: Investigation; Methodology; Visualization; Writing—Original draft; Writing—Review & editing. Enrico C. Quintana: Resources; Writing—Review & editing. Benjamin R. Halls: Writing—Review & editing. Caroline Winters: Funding acquisition; Project administration; Writing—Review & editing

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Correspondence to E.M.C Jones.

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Jones, E., Fayad, S., Quintana, E. et al. Path-Integrated X-Ray Images for Multi-Surface Digital Image Correlation (PI-DIC). Exp Mech 63, 681–701 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11340-023-00949-8

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