Abstract
Objective
To evaluate the relative contributions of poaching and habitat loss to the endangerment of neotropical parrots
Method
A matched case-control design was employed. Using NatureServe digitized range maps for birds in the Americas, 145 neotropical parrot species were individually matched with 145 control species, from similar ranges and, by proxy, from similar habitats. The control species were taxonomically similar, mid-sized, forest-dwelling birds that, like parrots, use holes and cavities for breeding and roosting. The conservation status of the parrots and control birds was established through the IUCN Red List of endangered species.
Results
Nearly five times as many parrot species (59 out of 145) as non-parrots (13 out of 145) are threatened with extinction to some degree. In 54 out of 65 pairs with unequal conservation status, the parrot species is at greater risk of extinction.
Conclusions
Subject to limitations of the matching employed and the use of range data as a proxy for habitat, it is concluded that poaching is a strong threat to the conservation of neotropical parrots—perhaps stronger than habitat loss. Criminologists therefore have an important part to play in conservation of parrots, and perhaps also in conservation of other endangered species, through identification and implementation of measures to control poaching.
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Notes
Following passage of the WBCA, four studies also found a decrease of about 60 % in taking young parrots from their nests, which is the commonest method of poaching (Wright et al. 2001).
Sympatry is the biological phenomenon that two species (or more) occur in the same geographic area, and that their individuals can encounter each other.
A species taxonomy constitutes a listing of life forms, organized by genus, species and subspecies, in a defined order. It reflects the belief of the taxonomy’s author about the evolutionary history of the life forms listed.
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Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the comments by three anonymous reviewers, which helped to improve an earlier version of this paper. The geographic data that we worked with were provided by NatureServe in collaboration with Robert Ridgely, James Zook, The Nature Conservancy Migratory Bird Program, Conservation International CABS, World Wildlife Fund US, and Environment Canada WILDSPACE.
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Appendix 1: Matched species pairs on spatial match score M 1
Appendix 1: Matched species pairs on spatial match score M 1
The table below lists the matched (parrot,control) species pairs as found using score M 1, with the scores obtained for each pair. The list is ordered by parrot taxonomic sequence.
Parrot species | IUCN | Control species | IUCN | M 1 score | |
Hyacinth Macaw | EN | White-eared Puffbird | LC | 34 | 99 |
Indigo Macaw | EN | Spotted Piculet | LC | 0 | 16 |
Glaucous Macaw | CR | Long-tufted Screech-Owl | LC | 13 | 81 |
Spix’s Macaw | CR | Spotted Piculet | LC | 25 | 6 |
Blue-and-yellow Macaw | LC | Chestnut-eared Aracari | LC | 51 | 52 |
Blue-throated Macaw | CR | White-throated Woodpecker | LC | 0 | 09 |
Military Macaw | VU | Gray-crowned Woodpecker | LC | 22 | 83 |
Great Green Macaw | EN | Sooty-capped Puffbird | NT | 14 | 42 |
Scarlet Macaw | LC | Pavonine Quetzal | LC | 49 | 67 |
Red-and-green Macaw | LC | Blue-crowned Trogon | LC | 47 | 2 |
Red-fronted Macaw | EN | Montane Forest Screech-Owl | LC | 10 | 57 |
Chestnut-fronted Macaw | LC | Red-stained Woodpecker | LC | 61 | 5 |
Red-bellied Macaw | LC | Blue-crowned Trogon | LC | 49 | 48 |
Blue-headed Macaw | VU | Rufous-headed Woodpecker | LC | 40 | 33 |
Blue-winged Macaw | NT | White-eared Puffbird | LC | 63 | 96 |
Yellow-collared Macaw | LC | Pale-crested Woodpecker | LC | 54 | 67 |
Red-shouldered Macaw | LC | White-eared Puffbird | LC | 51 | 55 |
Thick-billed Parrot | EN | Eared Quetzal | NT | 50 | 19 |
Maroon-fronted Parrot | VU | Golden-fronted Woodpecker | LC | 2 | 48 |
Yellow-eared Parrot | CR | Moustached Puffbird | LC | 6 | 80 |
Golden Parakeet | EN | Rufous-necked Puffbird | LC | 21 | 31 |
Blue-crowned Parakeet | LC | White-barred Piculet | LC | 32 | 45 |
Green Parakeet | LC | Tamaulipas Pygmy-Owl | LC | 9 | 45 |
Scarlet-fronted Parakeet | LC | White-mantled Barbet | EN | 4 | 62 |
Mitred Parakeet | LC | Dot-fronted Woodpecker | LC | 38 | 32 |
Red-masked Parakeet | NT | White-whiskered Puffbird | LC | 7 | 43 |
Finsch’s Parakeet | LC | Yellow-eared Toucanet | LC | 30 | 43 |
White-eyed Parakeet | LC | Chestnut-eared Aracari | LC | 47 | 45 |
Cuban Parakeet | VU | Ivory-billed Woodpecker | CR | 0 | 8 |
Hispaniolan Parakeet | VU | Puerto Rican Woodpecker | LC | 9 | 97 |
Sun Parakeet | EN | Varzea Piculet | LC | 7 | 81 |
Jandaya Parakeet | LC | Spotted Piculet | LC | 25 | 86 |
Golden-capped Parakeet | NT | Robust Woodpecker | LC | 52 | 95 |
Dusky-headed Parakeet | LC | Golden-collared Toucanet | LC | 57 | 78 |
Olive-throated Parakeet | LC | Keel-billed Toucan | LC | 56 | 49 |
Orange-fronted Parakeet | LC | Golden-cheeked Woodpecker | LC | 38 | 30 |
Peach-fronted Parakeet | LC | White-eared Puffbird | LC | 57 | 37 |
Brown-throated Parakeet | LC | Many-banded Aracari | LC | 13 | 42 |
Cactus Parakeet | LC | Spotted Piculet | LC | 49 | 16 |
Nanday Parakeet | LC | Pale-crested Woodpecker | LC | 18 | 91 |
Golden-plumed Parakeet | VU | Yellow-browed Toucanet | EN | 8 | 45 |
Burrowing Parakeet | LC | Chaco Owl | LC | 5 | 76 |
Blue-throated Parakeet | VU | Yellow-eared Woodpecker | LC | 52 | 0 |
Blaze-winged Parakeet | NT | Pale-crested Woodpecker | LC | 10 | 45 |
Maroon-bellied Parakeet | LC | Stygian Owl | LC | 33 | 98 |
Crimson-bellied Parakeet | LC | Black-girdled Barbet | LC | 54 | 26 |
Pearly Parakeet | NT | Rufous-capped Nunlet | LC | 6 | 42 |
Green-cheeked Parakeet | LC | Pale-crested Woodpecker | LC | 40 | 98 |
Painted Parakeet | LC | Amazonian Pygmy-Owl | LC | 60 | 20 |
Maroon-faced Parakeet | NT | Three-toed Jacamar | VU | 21 | 91 |
Gray-breasted Parakeet | CR | Ochraceous Piculet | VU | 3 | 13 |
Pfrimer’s Parakeet | EN | Rusty-breasted Nunlet | LC | 1 | 19 |
Santa Marta Parakeet | EN | White-tipped Quetzal | LC | 10 | 21 |
Fiery-shouldered Parakeet | LC | Chestnut-tipped Toucanet | LC | 8 | 19 |
Maroon-tailed Parakeet | LC | Yellow-billed Jacamar | LC | 46 | 96 |
Black-capped Parakeet | LC | Purus Jacamar | LC | 41 | 24 |
White-necked Parakeet | VU | Cinnamon Screech-Owl | LC | 43 | 43 |
Brown-breasted Parakeet | VU | Black-billed Mountain-Toucan | LC | 20 | 6 |
Red-eared Parakeet | LC | White-tipped Quetzal | LC | 14 | 31 |
Rose-headed Parakeet | LC | Andean Pygmy-Owl | LC | 3 | 47 |
Sulphur-winged Parakeet | LC | Costa Rican Pygmy-Owl | LC | 47 | 26 |
Austral Parakeet | LC | Green-barred Woodpecker | LC | 0 | 10 |
Slender-billed Parakeet | LC | Chilean Flicker | LC | 29 | 56 |
Monk Parakeet | LC | White-barred Piculet | LC | 32 | 5 |
Gray-hooded Parakeet | LC | Andean Flicker | LC | 17 | 98 |
Mountain Parakeet | LC | Andean Flicker | LC | 57 | 20 |
Barred Parakeet | LC | Costa Rican Pygmy-Owl | LC | 3 | 73 |
Andean Parakeet | LC | Crimson-mantled Woodpecker | LC | 26 | 34 |
Rufous-fronted Parakeet | VU | Yellow-vented Woodpecker | LC | 7 | 62 |
Mexican Parrotlet | LC | Colima Pygmy-Owl | LC | 39 | 80 |
Green-rumped Parrotlet | LC | Pale-headed Jacamar | LC | 11 | 42 |
Blue-winged Parrotlet | LC | Robust Woodpecker | LC | 29 | 76 |
Spectacled Parrotlet | LC | Cinnamon Woodpecker | LC | 24 | 57 |
Dusky-billed Parrotlet | LC | Lemon-throated Barbet | LC | 40 | 56 |
Pacific Parrotlet | LC | White-whiskered Puffbird | LC | 7 | 27 |
Yellow-faced Parrotlet | VU | Yellow-browed Toucanet | EN | 5 | 83 |
Plain Parakeet | LC | Spotted Piculet | LC | 1 | 55 |
Canary-winged Parakeet | LC | Scarlet-crowned Barbet | LC | 18 | 31 |
Yellow-chevroned Parakeet | LC | White-eared Puffbird | LC | 60 | 36 |
Gray-cheeked Parakeet | EN | Orange-fronted Barbet | NT | 15 | 83 |
Orange-chinned Parakeet | LC | Pale-headed Jacamar | LC | 14 | 95 |
Cobalt-winged Parakeet | LC | Chestnut-capped Puffbird | LC | 61 | 94 |
Golden-winged Parakeet | LC | Rusty-breasted Nunlet | LC | 22 | 39 |
Tui Parakeet | LC | Curl-crested Aracari | LC | 53 | 11 |
Tepui Parrotlet | LC | Guianan Toucanet | LC | 3 | 13 |
Amazonian Parrotlet | NT | Scarlet-hooded Barbet | LC | 48 | 0 |
Lilac-tailed Parrotlet | LC | White-winged Potoo | LC | 4 | 14 |
Scarlet-shouldered Parrotlet | LC | Gould’s Toucanet | LC | 24 | 58 |
Red-fronted Parrotlet | VU | Orange-bellied Trogon | LC | 55 | 34 |
Blue-fronted Parrotlet | LC | Scarlet-backed Woodpecker | LC | 12 | 87 |
Sapphire-rumped Parrotlet | LC | Pavonine Quetzal | LC | 42 | 63 |
Brown-backed Parrotlet | EN | Yellow-eared Woodpecker | LC | 27 | 27 |
Golden-tailed Parrotlet | VU | Yellow-eared Woodpecker | LC | 44 | 58 |
Spot-winged Parrotlet | VU | Andean Potoo | LC | 9 | 18 |
Black-headed Parrot | LC | Many-banded Aracari | LC | 38 | 34 |
White-bellied Parrot | LC | Rufous-capped Nunlet | LC | 64 | 5 |
Vulturine Parrot | LC | Rufous-necked Puffbird | LC | 18 | 87 |
Bald Parrot | NT | Black-girdled Barbet | LC | 18 | 64 |
Brown-hooded Parrot | LC | Spot-crowned Barbet | LC | 9 | 25 |
Rose-faced Parrot | LC | Slaty-tailed Trogon | LC | 9 | 1 |
Orange-cheeked Parrot | LC | Chestnut-capped Puffbird | LC | 75 | 30 |
Saffron-headed Parrot | NT | Gray-cheeked Nunlet | LC | 27 | 94 |
Caica Parrot | LC | Amazonian Pygmy-Owl | LC | 22 | 94 |
Red-capped Parrot | LC | Long-tufted Screech-Owl | LC | 36 | 47 |
Black-winged Parrot | LC | Hooded Mountain-Toucan | LC | 28 | 47 |
Rusty-faced Parrot | VU | Scaled Piculet | LC | 5 | 2 |
Indigo-winged Parrot | CR | Yellow-vented Woodpecker | LC | 0 | 98 |
Red-faced Parrot | VU | Gray-breasted Mountain-Toucan | NT | 12 | 43 |
Short-tailed Parrot | LC | Scarlet-crowned Barbet | LC | 26 | 1 |
Blue-headed Parrot | LC | Pavonine Quetzal | LC | 44 | 21 |
Red-billed Parrot | LC | Ocellated Piculet | LC | 8 | 85 |
Scaly-headed Parrot | LC | Stygian Owl | LC | 38 | 20 |
Speckle-faced Parrot | LC | Coppery-chested Jacamar | VU | 4 | 87 |
White-crowned Parrot | LC | Black-cheeked Woodpecker | LC | 37 | 34 |
Bronze-winged Parrot | LC | Rufous-banded Owl | LC | 10 | 79 |
Dusky Parrot | LC | White-winged Potoo | LC | 11 | 41 |
Cuban Parrot | NT | Ivory-billed Woodpecker | CR | 0 | 15 |
Yellow-billed Parrot | VU | Jamaican Woodpecker | LC | 98 | 29 |
Hispaniolan Parrot | VU | Puerto Rican Woodpecker | LC | 10 | 61 |
White-fronted Parrot | LC | Gila Woodpecker | LC | 7 | 34 |
Yucatán Parrot | LC | Collared Aracari | LC | 10 | 58 |
Black-billed Parrot | VU | Jamaican Woodpecker | LC | 98 | 29 |
Puerto Rican Parrot | CR | Puerto Rican Woodpecker | LC | 5 | 31 |
Tucuman Parrot | NT | Dot-fronted Woodpecker | LC | 46 | 22 |
Red-spectacled Parrot | VU | Mottled Piculet | NT | 44 | 45 |
Red-crowned Parrot | EN | Tamaulipas Pygmy-Owl | LC | 26 | 50 |
Lilac-crowned Parrot | VU | Gray-crowned Woodpecker | LC | 59 | 25 |
Red-lored Parrot | LC | Gray-cheeked Nunlet | LC | 17 | 30 |
Blue-cheeked Parrot | NT | Guianan Puffbird | LC | 39 | 88 |
Red-browed Parrot | EN | Yellow-eared Woodpecker | LC | 41 | 29 |
Red-tailed Parrot | VU | Tawny-browed Owl | LC | 2 | 63 |
Festive Parrot | LC | Pavonine Quetzal | LC | 14 | 5 |
Yellow-faced Parrot | NT | Blond-crested Woodpecker | LC | 25 | 36 |
Yellow-shouldered Parrot | VU | White-tipped Quetzal | LC | 4 | 46 |
Blue-fronted Parrot | LC | White Woodpecker | LC | 57 | 40 |
Yellow-headed Parrot | EN | Golden-cheeked Woodpecker | LC | 11 | 13 |
Yellow-naped Parrot | LC | Hoffmann’s Woodpecker | LC | 24 | 58 |
Yellow-crowned Parrot | LC | Red-stained Woodpecker | LC | 52 | 17 |
Orange-winged Parrot | LC | Pavonine Quetzal | LC | 25 | 5 |
Scaly-naped Parrot | LC | Blue-banded Toucanet | LC | 16 | 6 |
Kawall’s Parrot | LC | Rufous-necked Puffbird | LC | 27 | 16 |
Mealy Parrot | LC | Pavonine Quetzal | LC | 49 | 72 |
Vinaceous Parrot | EN | Robust Woodpecker | LC | 36 | 38 |
Red-fan Parrot | LC | Rufous-capped Nunlet | LC | 25 | 38 |
Blue-bellied Parrot | NT | Little Woodpecker | LC | 0 | 94 |
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Clarke, R.V., de By, R.A. Poaching, habitat loss and the decline of neotropical parrots: a comparative spatial analysis. J Exp Criminol 9, 333–353 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-013-9177-0
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-013-9177-0