Abstract
Riparian vegetation is a keystone ecosystem element heavily impacted by livestock grazing. Historically, regeneration approaches of the riparian vegetation use either active (planting) or passive (natural regeneration) strategies. Frameworks based on an understanding of the soil seed bank are needed to help guide the approach adopted. This study compared the soil seed bank composition to the extant riparian vegetation to assess the potential for natural regeneration to supplement active plantings, following livestock exclusion on the south-coast of Australia. At each of four sites, we surveyed the extant vegetation, and collected five soil samples from each of three zones (instream, slope, bank). Our results show that the proportions of species nativeness, growth forms, and life cycle was similar for both communities. However, while there were more terrestrial species recorded in the standing vegetation, there were more wetland specialists in the soil seed bank. A persistent native seed bank, combined with other basic management strategies, could potentially compete and limit the abundance of non-native or invasive grasses. The high abundance of native grass-types (Cyperaceae, Juncaceae, Juncaginaceae, Asparagaceae, Poaceae, Typhaceae), can be relied upon to regenerate the understorey to complement active planting of the trees and shrubs. As such, resources could be prioritised to sites where native species abundance in the seed bank is low. This study recommends that land managers should investigate the composition of the soil seed bank prior to allocating resources for active planting activities to ensure the most efficient use of resources across the landscape.
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Data availability
The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
References
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Acknowledgements
This project was funded by the NSW Government under the Marine Estate Management Strategy. The ten-year Strategy was developed by the NSW Marine Estate Management Authority to coordinate the management of the NSW marine estate. We would like to thank Daniel Svozil for field assistance and Jackie Miles for plant identification advice. Thanks to our internal reviewers for their constructive comments to the paper, and other anonymous reviewers who improved the paper, although any mistakes are ours to own.
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All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation (JL,MP,UP), data collection (JL,MP, LW) and analysis (JL,LW) were performed by all authors. Figure 2 was prepared by UP, and all others were prepared by JL. The first draft of the manuscript was written by JL and all authors commented on previous versions of the final manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
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Appendix A
Appendix A
Plant species list of plant species recorded from 20 × 20 plots from 3 sites on Victoria Creek on 18–20 September 2019. WPFG (Water Plant Functional Groups) and WPIL (Water Plant Indicator List) codes from Ling et al. (2019).
Family | Scientific name | Common name | Native/Exotic/High threat weeds (HTW) | Veg plots | Seed bank | Growth form | WPIL code‡ | WPFG† | A/B/P |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Aizoaceae | Tetragonia tetragonoides (Pall.) Kuntze | warrigal greens | N | * | Forb (FG) | 3.5 | TDr | P | |
Alismataceae | Alisma plantago-aquatica L | water plantain | N | * | * | Other (OG) | 1.33 | Arf | P |
Apiaceae | Daucus carota L | wild carrot | E | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | B | ||
Araceae | Lemna disperma Hegelm | common duckweed | N | * | * | Forb (FG) | 1.33 | ARf | P |
Araliaceae | Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Lam | N | * | * | Forb (FG) | 3.98 | Tda | P | |
Asteraceae | Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Ten | spear thistle | E | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | P | ||
Asteraceae | Conyza sumatrensis (Retz.) E.Walker | flaxleaf fleabane | E | * | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | A | |
Asteraceae | Delairea odorata Lem | cape ivy | E | * | Forb (FG) | 4.5 | Tdr | P | |
Asteraceae | Gamochaeta americana (Mill.) Wedd | a cudweed | E | * | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | P | |
Asteraceae | Hypochaeris radicata L | catsear, flatweed | E | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | P | ||
Asteraceae | Senecio linearifolius A.Rich | fireweed groundsel | N | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | P | ||
Asteraceae | Senecio madagascariensis Poir | fireweed | HTW | * | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | P | |
Asteraceae | Sigesbeckia orientalis L | indian weed | N | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | P | ||
Asteraceae | Sonchus asper (L.) Hill | prickly sowthistle | E | * | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | A/B | |
Asteraceae | Tagetes minuta L | stinking roger | E | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | A | ||
Asteraceae | Taraxacum officinale Weber | dandelion | E | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | P | ||
Blechnaceae | Blechnum nudum (Labill.) Mett. ex Luerss | fishbone water fern | N | * | Fern (EG) | 2.58 | Ate | P | |
Brassicaceae | Nasturtium officinale W.T.Aiton | water cress | E | * | Forb (FG) | 1.33 | ATe | P | |
Bryophyta | Bryophyta | moss | N | * | Other (OG) | 3 | P | ||
Campanulaceae | Lobelia aneceps L. f | N | * | * | Forb (FG) | 2.15 | Tda | P | |
Campanulaceae | Wahlenbergia gracilis (G.Forst.) A.DC | Australian bluebell | N | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | P | ||
Caryophyllaceae | Cerastium vulgare Hartm | mouse ear chickweed | E | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | P | ||
Caryophyllaceae | Stellaria media (L.) ill | common chickweed | E | * | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | A/B | |
Chenopodiaceae | Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants | mexican tea, wormseed | E | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | P | ||
Commelinaceae | Tradescantia fluminensis ell | wandering jew | HTW | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | P | ||
Conolulaceae | Dichondra repens J.R.Forst. & G.Forst | kidney weed | N | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | P | ||
Crassulaceae | Crassula helmsii (Kirk) Cockayne | swamp crassula | N | * | Forb (FG) | 1.33 | Arp | A | |
Cyperaceae | Carex appressa R.Br | tall Sedge, tussock Sedge | N | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 2.17 | ATe | P | |
Cyperaceae | Carex fascicularis Sol. ex Boott | tassel sedge | N | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 1.68 | ATe | P | |
Cyperaceae | Carex longebrachiata Boeckeler | N | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 4.5 | P | |||
Cyperaceae | Carex sp | a sedge | N | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 3 | ATe | P | |
Cyperaceae | Cyperaceae unknown | N | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 3 | P | |||
Cyperaceae | Cyperus brevifolius (Rottb.) Endl. ex Hassk | mullumbimby couch | E | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 3.5 | Tdr | P | |
Cyperaceae | Cyperus imbecillis R.Br | N | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 3.17 | Tda | P | ||
Cyperaceae | Cyperus sp | N | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 3 | P | |||
Cyperaceae | Eleocharis sphacelata R.Br | tall spike rush | N | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 1.33 | ATe | P | |
Cyperaceae | Isolepis cernua (Vahl) Roem. & Schult | nodding club-rush | N | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 2.66 | Atl | P | |
Cyperaceae | Isolepis inundata R.Br | swamp club-rush | N | * | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 1.97 | ATl | P |
Cyperaceae | Isolepis prolifera (Rottb.) R.Br | E | * | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 1 | ARp | P | |
Cyperaceae | Isolepis sp | N | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 3 | P | |||
Cyperaceae | Schoenoplectus validus (ahl) A.Löe & D.Löe | N | * | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 1.33 | Se | P | |
Dennstaedtiaceae | Pteridium esculentum (G.Forst.) Cockayne | common bracken | N | * | Fern (EG) | 5 | P | ||
Dicksoniaceae | Calochlaena dubia (R.Br.) M.D.Turner & R.A.White | rainbow fern | N | * | * | Fern (EG) | 3.65 | Tda | P |
Dicksoniaceae | Hypolepis muelleri N.A.Wakef | rainbow fern | N | * | * | Fern (EG) | 2.99 | Tda | P |
Dilleniaceae | Hibbertia scandens (Willd.) Dryand | climbing guinea flower | N | * | Other (OG) | 5 | P | ||
Elatinaceae | Elatine gratioloides A.Cunn | waterwort | N | * | Forb (FG) | 1.67 | ATl | A | |
Fabaceae (Faboideae) | Trifolium repens L | white clover | E | * | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | P | |
Fabaceae (Faboideae) | Lotus corniculatus L | birds-foot trefoil | E | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | P | ||
Fabaceae (Faboideae) | Medicago polymorpha L | burr medic | E | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | A | ||
Fabaceae (Faboideae) | Vicia sativa L | E | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | A | |||
Fabaceae (Mimosoideae) | Acacia mearnsii De Wild | black wattle | N | * | * | Tree (TG) | 3.92 | Tdr | P |
Fabaceae (Mimosoideae) | Acacia sp | wattles | N | * | Tree (TG) | 4 | Tdr | P | |
Geraniaceae | Geranium gardneri de Lange | rough crane's-bill | N | * | Forb (FG) | 4 | P | ||
Geraniaceae | Geranium homeanum Turcz | N | * | Forb (FG) | 4 | P | |||
Iridaceae | Romulea rosea var australis (Ewart) M.P.de Vos | onion grass | E | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | P | ||
Juncaceae | Juncus articulatus L | jointed rush | HTW | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 1.82 | ATe | P | |
Juncaceae | Juncus bufonius L | toad rush | N | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 2.41 | Tda | A | |
Juncaceae | Juncus prismatocarpus R.Br | branching rush | N | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 2.15 | ATe | P | |
Juncaceae | Juncus usitatus L.A.S.Johnson | common rush | N | * | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 1.67 | ATe | P |
Juncaginaceae | Cycnogeton microtuberosum (Aston) Mering & Kadereit | water ribbons | N | * | * | Forb (FG) | 1.33 | Se | P |
Lamiaceae | Plectranthus parviflorus Willd | cockspur flower | N | * | Shrub (SG) | 3.67 | Tdr | P | |
Lomandraceae | Lomandra longifolia Labill | spiny-headed mat-rush | N | * | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 5 | P | |
Loranthaceae | Amyema congener ssp congener (Sieber ex Schult. & Schult.f.) Tiegh | N | * | Other (OG) | 5 | P | |||
Malvaceae | Modiola caroliniana (L.) G.Don | red-flowered mallow | E | * | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | P/A | |
Malvaceae | Sida rhombifolia L | paddy's lucerne | E | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | P | ||
Myrtaceae | Corymbia maculata (Hook.) K.D.Hill & L.A.S.Johnson | spotted gum | N | * | Tree (TG) | 5 | P | ||
Myrtaceae | Eucalyptus botryoides Sm | bangalay, southern mahogany | N | * | Tree (TG) | 5 | P | ||
Myrtaceae | Eucalyptus robusta Sm | swamp mahogany | N | * | Tree (TG) | 2.65 | Tda | P | |
Oleaceae | Ligustrum lucidum Aiton | large-leaved privet | HTW | * | Shrub (SG) | 5 | P | ||
Onagraceae | Ludwigia peploides subsp. montevidensis (Spreng.) P.H.Raven | water primrose, clove-strip | N | * | Forb (FG) | 1.48 | ARp | P | |
Oxalidaceae | Oxalis sp | E | * | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | P | ||
Phyllanthaceae | Breynia oblongifolia Müll.Arg | coffee bush | N | * | Shrub (SG) | 5 | P | ||
Pittosporaceae | Bursaria spinosa subsp. lasiophylla (E.M.Benn.) L.Cayzer, Crisp & I.Telford | blackthorn, boxthorn | N | * | Shrub (SG) | 5 | P | ||
Plantaginaceae | Callitriche stagnalis Scop | common starwort | E | * | * | Forb (FG) | 1 | Atl | P |
Plantaginaceae | Plantago lanceolata L | lamb's tongues, plantain | E | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | A/B | ||
Plantaginaceae | Plantago major L | large plantain | E | * | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | P | |
Plantaginaceae | Veronica anagallis-aquatica L | blue water speedwell | E | * | Forb (FG) | 2.65 | Ate | P | |
Poaceae | Anthoxanthum odoratum L | E | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 5 | P | |||
Poaceae | Axonopus fissifolius (Raddi) Kuhlm | narrow-leafed carpet grass | HTW | * | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 5 | P | |
Poaceae | Bromus catharticus Vahl | prairie grass | E | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 5 | P | ||
Poaceae | Cenchrus clandestinus (Hochst. ex Chio.) Morrone | kikuyu | HTW | * | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 5 | P | |
Poaceae | Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers | couch, bermuda grass | N | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 5 | P | ||
Poaceae | Dactylis glomerata L | cocksfoot | E | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 5 | P | ||
Poaceae | Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P.Beauv | barnyard grass | E | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 5 | A | ||
Poaceae | Ehrharta erecta Lam | panic veldtgrass | HTW | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 5 | P | ||
Poaceae | Festuca pratensis Huds | meadow fescue | E | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 5 | P | ||
Poaceae | Holcus lanatus L | yorkshire fog | E | * | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 5 | P | |
Poaceae | Isachne globosa (Thunb.) Kuntze | swamp millet | N | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 2.17 | Ate | P | |
Poaceae | Lolium perenne L | perennial ryegrass | E | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 5 | P | ||
Poaceae | Paspalum dilatatum Poir | paspalum | HTW | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | P | ||
Poaceae | Paspalum distichum L | water couch | N | * | * | Forb (FG) | 1.34 | ATe | P |
Poaceae | Poa annua L | winter grass, annual poa | E | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 5 | P | ||
Poaceae | Poa pratensis L | kentucky bluegrass | E | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 5 | P | ||
Poaceae | Poaceae unknown | a grass | E | * | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 3 | P | |
Poaceae | Sporobolus africanus (Poir.) Robyns & Tournay | parramatta grass | E | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 5 | P | ||
Poaceae | Stenotaphrum secundatum (Walter) Kuntze | buffalo grass | E | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 5 | P | ||
Polygonaceae | Persicaria decipiens (R.Br.) K.L.Wilson | slender knotweed | N | * | * | Forb (FG) | 2.27 | ATe | P |
Polygonaceae | Persicaria hydropiper (L.) Delarbre | water pepper | N | * | Forb (FG) | 1.92 | ATe | P | |
Polygonaceae | Persicaria strigosa (R.Br.) H.Gross | spotted knotweed | N | * | Forb (FG) | 1.65 | ATe | P | |
Polygonaceae | Rumex acetosella L | sorrel | E | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | P | ||
Polygonaceae | Rumex brownii Campd | swamp dock | N | * | Forb (FG) | 2.5 | Tda | P | |
Polygonaceae | Rumex conglomeratus Murray | clustered dock | E | * | * | Forb (FG) | 3 | P | |
Polygonaceae | Rumex crispus L | curled dock | E | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | P | ||
Polygonaceae | Rumex sagittatus Thunb | turkey rhubarb | HTW | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | P | ||
Polygonaceae | Rumex sp | a dock | E | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | P | ||
Primulaceae | Lysimachia arvensis (L.) U.Manns & Anderb | scarlet pimpernel | E | * | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | P/A | |
Primulaceae | Samolus valerandi L | common brookweed | N | * | * | Forb (FG) | 3.65 | Tda | P |
Pteridaceae | Adiantum aethiopicum L | common maidenhair | N | * | * | Fern (EG) | 2.92 | Tda | P |
Ranunculaceae | Ranunculus inundatus R.Br. ex DC | river Buttercup | N | * | Forb (FG) | 1.33 | ATl | P | |
Ranunculaceae | Ranunculus repens L | creeping buttercup | E | * | Forb (FG) | 2 | P | ||
Ranunculaceae | Ranunculus sp | E | * | Forb (FG) | 3 | P | |||
Rosaceae | Rubus fruticosus agg. L | blackberry | HTW | * | Shrub (SG) | 5 | P | ||
Salicaceae | Salix sp. | willows | HTW | * | Tree (TG) | 3 | P | ||
Salviniaceae | Azolla filiculoides Lam | pacific azolla | N | * | Forb (FG) | 1.33 | ARf | P | |
Scrophulariaceae | Verbascum virgatum Stokes | twiggy mullein | E | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | B | ||
Solanaceae | Solanum americanum Mill | glossy nightshade | E | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | P | ||
Solanaceae | Solanum chenopodioides Lam | whitetip nightshade | E | * | Forb (FG) | 4 | P | ||
Sparganiaceae | Sparganium subglobosum Morong | floating bur-reed | N | * | Forb (FG) | 1.65 | Se | P | |
Typhaceae | Typha domingensis Pers | narrow-leaed cumbungi, cattails | N | * | * | Grass & grasslike (GG) | 1.33 | Se | P |
Urticaceae | Urtica incisa Poir | stinging nettle | N | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | P | ||
Verbenaceae | Verbena bonariensis L | purpletop | E | * | * | Forb (FG) | 5 | P |
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Ling, J.E., Powell, M., Wen, L. et al. Soil seed bank can complement restoration efforts in a coastal freshwater creek. Wetlands Ecol Manage 31, 825–852 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11273-023-09954-z
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11273-023-09954-z