Abstract
The quality of water for human consumption is being compromised due to the increasing population and human activities. Perchlorate, a highly soluble ion that persists in water for a long time, is one of the water contaminants associated with several health risks. Comprehensive data on levels of perchlorate and other ions in water in the wider Machakos County is lacking. Therefore, surface and underground water in three sub-counties within Machakos County was investigated for its suitability as drinking water during the wet and dry seasons. Samples were collected from ten (five surface and five underground) sampling sites in each sub-county and investigated for physico-chemical parameters, ions, and microbiological properties. Borehole water recorded a mean temperature of 24.5 ± 2.2 °C, while surface water had a mean of 25.5 ± 3.2 °C. Average values for TDS, pH, conductivity, and TSS for borehole and surface water were 660.8 ± 404.0 mg/L and 432.9 ± 598.0 mg/L, 7.02 ± 0.23 and 7.15 ± 0.55, 1042.0 ± 678.0 µS/cm and 560.0 ± 816.0 µS/cm, and 18.86 ± 6.36 mg/L and 31.14 ± 9.99 mg/L, respectively. The mean values for chemical parameters in both borehole and surface water were perchlorates (341.4 ± 471.4 mg/L and 263.2 ± 412.3 mg/L), fluorides (0.78 ± 0.41 mg/L and 0.68 ± 0.34 mg/L), chloride (102.89 ± 84.89 mg/L and 62.16 ± 148.98 mg/L), NH3 (0.05 ± 0.04 mg/L and 0.18 ± 0.17 mg/L), sulfates (54.42 ± 125.12 mg/L and 92.85 ± 243.98 mg/L), nitrates (50.58 ± 41.95 mg/L and 37.63 ± 45.02 mg/L), CaCO3 (212.0 ± 99.2 mg/L and 106.7 ± 109.9 mg/L), and iron (0.11 ± 0.3 mg/L and 1.36 ± 1.32 mg/L). Mean population of coliform in surface water was 83.083 ± 22.204 C.F.U/100 mL. Most of the chemical parameters were within the permissible maximum limits with the exception of nitrates in borehole water and coliforms in surface water.
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The authors are very grateful to Kenya Water Research Institute (KEWI) where most of the physico-chemical studies were carried out.
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This work was supported by the Organization for Women in Science for the Developing World (OWSD) through the Early Career Fellowship Programme grant awarded to Veronica Okello, Award Agreement Number 4500429516.
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Abisaki Esitsakha, Elizabeth N. Ndunda, and Veronica A. Okello participated in study conception and design, material preparation, data collection, and analysis. Abisaki Esitsakha wrote the first draft of the manuscript and both Elizabeth N. Ndunda and Veronica A. Okello reviewed the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
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Esitsakha, A., Ndunda, E.N. & Okello, V.A. Physico-chemical, Microbiological, and Ion Assessment in Underground and Surface Water in Machakos County, Kenya. Water Air Soil Pollut 235, 174 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-024-06973-1
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-024-06973-1