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Is Volunteering Always Voluntary? Between Compulsion and Coercion in Co-production

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Abstract

Governments are increasingly eager to involve citizens in co-production of services. They are seen as a substitution or a supplementary resource in service delivery. Citizens’ involvement relies heavily on their motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic drivers) to partake in co-production. Taking note from prior debate in the volunteerism literature, the article ties volunteer motivation to the process of co-production and citizen–state interaction. Here the state has contrastive options to motivate citizens’ behavior varying between compulsion and coercion. The question is how states’ increased engagement and interaction with volunteers affects volunteer motivation and free choice, the main characteristic of volunteerism. To exemplify this, we analyze the motivation behind state engagement in different forms of co-production: volunteering in rescue and police services and in a volunteer program for the unemployed in Estonia. We conclude that using citizens in co-production is rife with controversies that influence the very nature of volunteerism.

Résumé

Les gouvernements souhaitent de plus en plus impliquer les citoyens dans la co-production de services. Ils sont perçus comme des ressources de substitution ou supplémentaires pour la prestation de services. L’implication des citoyens dépend largement de leur motivation (facteurs intrinsèques et extrinsèques) à collaborer à la production. S’inspirant de débat antérieur tiré de littérature existante sur le bénévolat, l’article fait un lien entre la motivation des bénévoles et le processus de co-production et l’interaction de l’État avec le citoyen. L’état jouit ici d’options contrastantes pour motiver le comportement des citoyens, de la compulsion à la coercition. La question est la suivante : comment l’engagement accru des États et l’interaction avec les bénévoles influencent-ils la motivation de ces derniers et leur liberté de choix, la principale caractéristique du bénévolat? Pour exemplifier ce concept, nous analysons la motivation derrière l’engagement de l’État dans diverses formes de co-production: le bénévolat observé dans les services de sauvetage et de police et celui d’un programme bénévole pour chômeurs en Estonie. Nous concluons que l’appel aux citoyens aux fins de co-production soulève de nombreuses controverses qui influencent la nature même du bénévolat.

Zusammenfassung

Regierungen sind vermehrt darum bemüht, Bürger in die Gemeinschaftsproduktion von Dienstleistungen miteinzubeziehen. Sie werden als Ersatz bzw. eine zusätzliche Ressource für die Dienstleistungsbereitstellung betrachtet. Die Involvierung der Bürger hängt stark von ihrer Motivation (intrinsische und extrinsische Anreize) zur Teilnahme an einer Gemeinschaftsproduktion ab. Unter Berücksichtigung einer früherern Debatte in der Literatur zur ehrenamtlichen Arbeit verbindet dieser Artikel die Motivation der Ehrenamtlichen mit dem Prozess der Gemeinschaftsproduktion und der Interaktion zwischen Staat und Bürger. Der Staat verfügt hier über kontrastierende Optionen, die zwischen Druck und Zwang variieren, um das Verhalten der Bürger zu motivieren. Die Frage ist, wie sich die erhöhte Involvierung des Staates und seine Interaktion mit den Ehrenamtlichen auf deren Motivation und freie Entscheidung, das Hauptmerkmal der ehrenamtlichen Tätigkeit, auswirken. Zur Veranschaulichung analysiert man die Motivation für das Eingreifen des Staates in verschiedenen Formen der Gemeinschaftsproduktion: die ehrenamtliche Arbeit im Rettungs- und Polizeidienst und in einem ehrenamtlichen Programm für Arbeitslose in Estland. Man kommt zu dem Schluss, dass der Einsatz von Bürgern in der Gemeinschaftsproduktion mit Kontroversen gespickt ist, die den wesentlichen Charakter der ehrenamtlichen Arbeit beeinflussen.

Resumen

A los gobiernos cada vez les entusiasma más implicar a los ciudadanos en la coproducción de servicios. Son vistos como una sustitución o como un recurso suplementario en la entrega de servicios. La implicación de los ciudadanos se basa enormemente en su motivación (impulsores intrínsecos y extrínsecos) para participar en la coproducción. Tomando nota de debates previos en el material publicado sobre el voluntariado, el artículo relaciona la motivación del voluntario con el proceso de coproducción y la interacción ciudadano-estado. En este caso, el estado tiene opciones contrastivas para motivar el comportamiento de los ciudadanos que varían entre la compulsión y la coerción. La pregunta es cómo el aumento del compromiso y la interacción de los estados con los voluntarios afecta a las principales características del voluntariado: la motivación de los voluntarios y la libre elección. Para ejemplificar esto, analizamos la motivación subyacente al compromiso estatal en diferentes formas de coproducción: voluntariado en servicios de rescate y policiales y en un programa voluntario para los desempleados en Estonia. Concluimos que la utilización de ciudadanos en la coproducción está plagada de controversias que influyen en la propia naturaleza del voluntariado.

Chinese

政府越来越渴望让公民参与志愿服务的合作。在提供服务的过程中,他们被视为是的替代者或补充资源。市民的参与严重依赖他们参加合作的动机(内在和外在驱动因素)。注意到在志愿服务文献中之前所进行的讨论,这篇文章将志愿者的动机与合作过程和市民-国家互动联系起来。在这里国家具有对照性的选择,来激发市民在强制和强迫情况下的不同行为。问题是国家深入的参与以及与志愿者增强的互动,如何能影响志愿者的动机和自由选择,这才是志愿服务的主要特征。为了举例证明这一点,我们分析了不同形式合作中国家参与背后的动机:救援和警察服务中的志愿服务在以及爱沙尼亚针对失业者的志愿项目。我们得出结论:在合作中使用市民会充满争议,这种争议会影响志愿服务的本质。

Arabic

الحكومات حريصة على نحو متزايد لإشراك المواطنين في الإنتاج المشترك للخدمات. ينظر إليهم على إنهم بديل أو مورد إضافي في تقديم الخدمات. إشراك المواطنين يعتمد بشكل كبيرعلى دوافعهم (العوامل الجوهرية والخارجية) للمشاركة في الإنتاج المشترك. بأخذ ملاحظات من النقاش السابق في أدب التطوع، المقالة تربط دافع المتطوع لعملية الإنتاج المشترك وتفاعل المواطن والدولة. هنا أن الدولة لديها خيارات تقابلية لتحفيز سلوك المواطنين تتراوح بين الإكراه والقسر. السؤال هو كيف زيادة الدول المشاركة والتفاعل مع المتطوعين يؤثرعلى دافع المتطوعين وحرية الاختيار، السمة الرئيسية للعمل التطوعي. لتجسيد هذا، نحن نحلل الدافع وراء إنخراط الدولة في أشكال مختلفة من الإنتاج المشترك: العمل التطوعي في خدمات الانقاذ والشرطة وفي برنامج المتطوعين للعاطلين عن العمل في إستونيا. نستنتج أن إستخدام المواطنين في الإنتاج المشترك هو الذي ينشر الخلافات التي تؤثرعلى طبيعة العمل التطوعي.

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Funding

This study was funded by the European Commission Seventh Framework Programme (Grant Number 320090) and Estonian Science Fund (Grant Numbers ETF9395, IUT19-13).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Ragnar Nurkse School of Innovation and Governance, Tallinn University of Technology, Akadeemia tee 3, 12618, Tallinn, Estonia

    Piret Tõnurist & Laidi Surva

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  1. Piret Tõnurist
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Correspondence to Piret Tõnurist.

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Appendix

Appendix

List of interviews (in alphabetical order)

  1. 1.

    Advisor on Volunteers (firefighters), Estonian Rescue Board (30.01.2015, Tallinn)

  2. 2.

    Chief Specialist for the Employment Department, Estonian Ministry of Social Affairs and Adviser for the Employment Department, Estonian Ministry of Social Affairs (previous Voluntary work coordinator in EUIF) (30.07.2015, Tallinn)

  3. 3.

    Assistant Police Officer in Eastern Prefecture (4.02.2015, Jõhvi)

  4. 4.

    Coordinator for Assistant Police Officers in Western Prefecture (6.02.2015, Pärnu)

  5. 5.

    Head of the volunteer movement, Kodukant, the Estonian Village Movement, (10.06.2014, Tallinn).

  6. 6.

    Coordinator for Assistant Police Officers in Eastern Prefecture (4.02.2015, Jõhvi)

  7. 7.

    Adviser for the Rescue and Crisis Management Policy Department, Estonian Ministry of the Interior (25.02.2015, Tallinn)

  8. 8.

    Deputy Head, Department of Services, Estonian Unemployment Insurance Fund and Chief Specialist, Department of Services, Estonian Unemployment Insurance Fund (14.08.2015, Tallinn)

  9. 9.

    Adviser for the Public Order and Criminal Policy Department, Estonian Ministry of the Interior (20.02.2015, Tallinn)

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Tõnurist, P., Surva, L. Is Volunteering Always Voluntary? Between Compulsion and Coercion in Co-production. Voluntas 28, 223–247 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-016-9734-z

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