Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Groutability of Granular Soils Using Bentonite Grout Based on Filtration Model

  • Published:
Transport in Porous Media Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This paper describes an experimental and a numerical study on the groutability of granular soils using sodium pyrophosphate (SPP)—modified bentonite grout to investigate its possible application in permeation grouting. While the groutability criteria based on the relative grain size of the soil and the grout have been widely used for particulate grouts, such criteria do not account for the change in groutability of soils due to chemical modifications of the grouts. Moreover, the bentonite grout has different physicochemical properties such as particle size and pH from those in the cement-based grout, resulting in different filtration character, and thus different groutability of soils. Therefore, it is difficult to apply the existing criteria developed for the cement-based grout to the bentonite grout. In this study, the apparent viscosities of various bentonite grouts (5, 7.5, 10, and 12 %, wt/wt %) with 0–4 % SPP were measured using an advanced rheometer. The grouts were injected through sand columns having different effective particle sizes (0.2, 0.28, and 0.31 mm) under two constant pressures (35 and 140 kPa). A 1D filtration model was utilized to simulate the grout flow through the sand columns. A lumped parameter that accounts for physicochemical properties of bentonite grouts was evaluated by calibrating the model with the experimental data. The results showed that the apparent viscosity of 7.5, 10, and 12 % bentonite suspensions decreased approximately 50 % with the SPP concentrations of 1, 3, and 4 %, respectively. Moreover, the lumped parameter increased with the decrease in the effective grain size of the sand and decreased with the decrease in the apparent viscosity of the grout. This implies that filtration during the grout flow was reduced with the SPP modification. The parameter also decreased with the increase in injection pressure and relative density. A new groutability criterion for bentonite grout was proposed based on the relationship between the injected pore volume and the lumped parameter. The criterion was compared to the existing criteria, leading to more accurate prediction of groutability in the tested sands. The proposed groutability criterion will be beneficial to design grouting works by more accurately predicting the groutability of granular soils for SPP modified bentonite grouts than the existing criteria.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9

Similar content being viewed by others

Abbreviations

a :

migrating particle radius (L)

b :

mean of natural log a

B :

bentonite fraction in percent (%)

C :

concentration of a solute (M/L\(^{3}\))

\(C_\mathrm{{o}}\) :

initial concentration of a solute (M/L\(^{3}\))

Cc:

coefficient of curvature

Cu:

coefficient of uniformity

COV:

coefficient of variation

D:

hydrodynamic dispersion tensor (L\(^{2}\)/T)

\(D_\mathrm{{c}}\) :

diameter of a capillary tube (L)

D \(_\mathrm{{{f}}}\) :

diameter of filter material (mm)

D \(_{10}\) :

effective grain size of soil (mm)

D \(_{15}\) :

diameter through which 15 % of total soil mass is passing (mm)

D \(_{30}\) :

diameter through which 30 % of total soil mass is passing (mm)

D \(_{60}\) :

diameter through which 60 % of total soil mass is passing (mm)

d \(_{85}\) :

diameter through which 85 % of total grout mass is passing (mm)

d \(_{95}\) :

diameter through which 95 % of total grout mass is passing (mm)

Dr:

relative density (%)

e :

void ratio

e \(_\mathrm{{min}}\) :

minimum void ratio of sand

e \(_\mathrm{{max}}\) :

maximum void ratio of sand

Gs:

specific gravity

i :

hydraulic gradient

K :

intrinsic permeability (L\(^{2})\)

m :

standard deviation of natural log a

N :

groutability of soil

N \(_\mathrm{{c}}\) :

Burwell’s (1958) second groutability (D \(_\mathrm{{10,sand}}\)/ d \(_\mathrm{{95,bentonite}})\)

n \('\) :

power law constant for power law fluid

n :

porosity of sand column

P :

injection pressure (kPa)

r :

pore radius (mm)

R :

particle radius (mm)

\(\alpha \)*:

parameter representing the effective pore length (L)

\(\tau \) :

shear stress (Pa)

\({\dot{\gamma }}\) :

shear strain (%)

\(\mathop {\gamma _\mathrm{{a}} }\limits ^\cdot \) :

apparent shear rate (1/s)

\(\sigma \) :

specific deposit (M/L\(^{3})\)

\(\lambda \) :

filtration coefficient (1/T)

\(\mu _\mathrm{{eq}}\) :

relative equilibrium apparent viscosity at equilibrium (mPa\(\cdot \)s)

\(\mu _\mathrm{{r}}\) :

relative viscosity (\(\mu _\mathrm{{eq, grout}}\)/\(\mu _\mathrm{{water}})\)

\(\phi \) \(_{1}\),\(\phi \) \(_{2}\),\(\phi \) \(_{3}\), \(\phi \) \(_{4}\), and \(\phi \) \(_{5}\) :

empirical constants for the proposed groutability

\(\phi \) \(_\mathrm{{p}}\) :

particle fraction in grout

\(\theta \) :

lumped parameter

V :

pore velocity (L/T)

SP:

poorly graded sand

SPP:

sodium pyrophosphate

SPPC:

SPP concentration in percent (%)

USCS:

unified soil classification system

References

  • Abend, S., Lagaly, G.: Sol–gel transitions of sodium montmorillonite dispersions. Appl. Clay Sci. 16, 201–227 (2000)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Akbulut, S., Saglamer, A.: Estimating the groutability of granular soils: a new approach. Tunn. Undergr. Space Technol. 17(4), 371–380 (2002)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arya, L.M., Paris, J.F.: A physicoempirical model to predict soil moisture characteristics from particle size distribution and bulk density data. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 63(5), 1063–1070 (1981)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arya, L.M., Dierolf, T.S.: Predicting soil moisture characteristics from particle size distributions: an improved method to calculate pore radii from particle radii. In: Vagenuchten, M.T., Leij, F.J. (eds.) Indirect Method for Estimating the Hydraulic Properties of Unsaturated Soils, pp. 115–124. U.S Sanitary Laboratory, Riverside (1989)

    Google Scholar 

  • Axelsson, M., Gustafson, G., Fransson, A.: Stop mechanism for cementitious grouts at different water-to-cement ratios. Tunn. Undergr. Space Technol. 24, 390–397 (2009)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bell, F.G.: Engineering Treatment of Soils. E&FN Spon, London (1993)

    Google Scholar 

  • Bouchelaghem, F., Vulliet, L.: Mathematical and numerical filtration–advection–dispersion model of miscible grout propagation in saturated porous media. Int. J. Num. Anal. Method Geomech. 25, 1195–1227 (2001)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brandenburg, U., Lagaly, G.: Rheological properties of sodium montmorillonite dispersions. Appl. Clay Sci. 3, 263–279 (1988)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burwell, E.B.: Cement, clay grouting of foundations: practice of the corps of engineering. J. Soil Mech. Found. Div. 84(1551), 1–22 (1958)

    Google Scholar 

  • Chupin, O., Saiyouri, N., Hicher, P.Y.: The effects of filtration on the injection of cement-based grouts in sand columns. Transp. Porous Med. 72, 227–240 (2007)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clarke, J.P.: Investigation of time-dependent rheological behavior of sodium pyrophosphate–bentonite suspensions. Thesis, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN (2008)

  • De Paoli, B., Bosco, B., Granta, R., Bruce, D.A: Fundamental observations on cement based grouts: traditional materials. In: Proceedings of Grouting, Soil Improvement and Geosynthetics, GSP 40, ASCE, New Orleans, 474–495, 1992

  • El Mohtar, C.S., Clarke, J.P., Bobet, A., Santagata, M., Drnevich, V., Johnston, C.: Cyclic response of a sand with thixotropic pore fluid. In: Proceedings of Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics Congress, Sacramento CA, 2008

  • El Mohtar, C., Bobet, A., Santagata, M., Drnevich, V., Johnston, C.: Liquefaction mitigation using bentonite suspensions. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 139, 1369–1380 (2013)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goh, R., Leong, Y.K., Lehane, B.: Bentonite slurries-zeta potential, yield stress, adsorbed additive and time-dependent behaviour. Rheol. Acta 1, 1–10 (2011)

    Google Scholar 

  • Gustafson, G., Stille, H.: Prediction of groutability from grout properties and hydrogeological data. Tunn. Undergr. Space Technol. 11, 325–332 (1996)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herzig, J.P., Leclerc, D.M., Le Goff, P.: Flow of suspensions through porous media. Application to deep filtration. Ind. Eng. Chem 62(5), 8–35 (1970)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Incecik, M., Ceran, I.: Cement grouting model tests. Bull. Istanb. Tech. Univ. Istanb. 48, 305–317 (1995)

    Google Scholar 

  • Iwasaki, T.: Some notes on sand filtration. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 29(10), 1591–1602 (1937)

    Google Scholar 

  • Jancsecz, S., Steiner, W.: Face Support for a Large Mix-Shield in Heterogeneous Ground Conditions. Tunneling ‘94 of Mining and Metallurgy and British Tunneling Society. Chapman and Hall, London (1994)

    Google Scholar 

  • Jefferis, S.A.: Slurries and grouts. In: Doran, K. (ed.) Construction Materials Reference Book. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford (1992)

    Google Scholar 

  • Kazemain, S., Huat, B.B.K.: Assessment and comparison of grouting and injection methods in geotechnical engineering. Eur. J. Sci. Res. 27(2), 234–247 (2009)

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, J.S., Lee, I.M., Jang, J.H., Choi, H.S.: Groutability of cement-based grout with consideration of viscosity and filtration phenomenon. Int. J. Num. Anal. Methods Geomechan. 33(16), 1771–1797 (2009)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, Y.S., Whittle, A.J.: Particle network model for simulating the filtration of the microfine cement grout in sand. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 135, 224–236 (2009)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Markou, I.N., Atmatzidis, D.K.: Properties and performance of a pulverized fly ash grout. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng 128, 682–691 (2002)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Metzner, A.B., Reed, J.C.: Flow of non-Newtonian fluids-correlation of laminar, transition, and turbulent flow region. AIChE J. 1, 434–440 (1995)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ni, J., Beckermann, C.A.: Volume-averaged two-phase model for transport phenomena during solidification. Metall. Trans. B. 22B, 349–361 (1991)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ozgurel, H.G., Vipulanandan, C.: Effect of grain size and distribution on permeability and mechanical behavior of acrylamide grouted sand. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 131, 1457–1465 (2005)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Penner, D., Lagaly, G.: Influence of anions on the rheological properties of clay mineral dispersions. Appl. Clay Sci. 19, 131–142 (2001)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raffle, J.F., Greenwood, D.A. The relation between the rheological characteristics of grouts and their capacity to permeate soil. In Proceedings of the 5\(^{th}\) International Conference of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Paris, vol. 2, p. 789, 1961

  • Raupach, M.R., Shaw, R.H.: Averaging procedures for flow within canopies. Bound. Layer Meteorl. 22, 79–90 (1982)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reddi, L.N., Bonala, M.V.S.: Analytical solution for fine particle accumulation in soil filters. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 123(12), 1143–1152 (1997)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reddi, L.N., Xiao, M., Hajra, M.G., Lee, I.M.: Permeability reduction of soil filters due to physical clogging. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. 126(3), 236–246 (2000)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rege, S.D., Fogler, H.S.: A network model for deep bed filtration of solid particles and emulsion drops. AIChE J. 34(11), 1761–1771 (1988)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rugg, D.A., Yoon, J., Hwang, H., El Mohtar, C.S.: Undrained shearing properties of sand permeated with a bentonite suspension for static liquefaction mitigation. In Proceedings of the Geofrontiers, Dallas, TX, pp. 677–686, 2011

  • Saada, Z., Canou, J., Dormieux, L., Dupla, J.C., Maghous, S.: Modeling of cement suspension flow in granular porous media. Int. J. Num. Anal. Methods Geomechan. 29, 691–711 (2005)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Santagata, M.C., Santagata, E. Experimental investigation of factors affecting the injectability of microcement grouts. In Proceedings of the 3rd International Specialty Conference on Grouting and Ground Treatment, ASCE, pp. 1221–1234, 2003

  • Santamarina, J., Klein, K.A., Wang, Y.H., Prencke, E.: Specific surface: determination and relevance. Can. Geotech. J. 39, 233–241 (2002)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tchillingarian, G.: Study of the dispersing agents. J. Sediment. Petrol. 22, 229–233 (1952)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tien, C.: Granular filtration Aerosols and Hydrosols. Butterworths, Boston (1989)

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsakiroglou, C.D., Pyatakes, A.C.: A new simulator of mercury porosimetry for the characterization of porous materials. J. Interface Colloid Sci. 137(2), 315–339 (1990)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vogel, H.J., Roth, K.: Quantitative morphology and network representation of soil pore structure. Adv. Water Resour. 24(3–4), 233–242 (2001)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yoon, J., El Mohtar, C.S.: Time dependent rheological behavior of modified bentonite suspensions. In Proceedings of the Geo-Congress, vol. 2012, pp. 1195–1204, 2012

  • Yoon, J., El Mohtar, C.S.: Dynamic rheological properties of sodium phyrophosphate modified bentonite suspensions for liquefaction mitigation. Clays Clay Miner. 61(4), 319–327 (2013a)

  • Yoon, J., El Mohtar, C.S.: Groutability of granular soils using sodium pyrophosphate modified bentonite suspensions. Tunn. Undergr. Space Technol. 37, 135–145 (2013b)

    Google Scholar 

  • Yoon, J: Application of pore fluid engineering for improving the hydraulic performance of granular soils. Ph.D. Dissertation, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX (2011)

  • Zebovitz, S., Krizek, R., Atmatzidis, D.: Injection of fine sands with very fine cement grout. J. Geotech. Engrg. 115(12), 1717–1733 (1989)

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This work was partially supported by the department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering and by the National Science Foundation, Geomechanics and Geomaterials program and Geotechnical engineering Program, under Grant No. 1254763. This support is gratefully acknowledged.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Fugro Consultants, Inc., 6100 Hillcroft, Houston, TX, 77081, USA

    Jisuk Yoon

  2. Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 78712-0280, USA

    Chadi S. El Mohtar

Authors
  1. Jisuk Yoon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Chadi S. El Mohtar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jisuk Yoon.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Yoon, J., Mohtar, C.S.E. Groutability of Granular Soils Using Bentonite Grout Based on Filtration Model. Transp Porous Med 102, 365–385 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11242-014-0279-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11242-014-0279-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation