Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Non-Atherosclerotic Vascular Disease in the Young

  • Published:
Journal of Thrombosis and Thrombolysis Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

There are a large variety of non-atherosclerotic causes of ischemic stroke in the young. Arterial dissection, most commonly associated with non-traumatic causes, is among the most common. Both the carotid and vertebrobasilar circulations can be affected. The vasculitidies represent a rare, but potentially treatable series of conditions that can lead to stroke through diverse mechanisms. Moyamoya is a nonatherosclerotic, noninflammatory, nonamyloid vasculopathy characterized by chronic progressive stenosis or occlusion of the distal internal carotid arteries and/or proximal portions of the middle and/or anterior cerebral arteries. Moyamoya can be idiopathic (moyamoya disease) or the result of other conditions. An appreciation of the unusual causes of stroke in the young is important when considering secondary prevention measures.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Adams HPJ, Kappelle LJ, Biller J, et al. Ischemic stroke in young adults. Experience in 329 patients enrolled in the Iowa Registry of Stroke in Young Adults. Archives of Neurology 1995;52:491–495.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Leys D, Lucas C, Gobert M, Deklunder G, Pruvo J-P. Cervical artery dissections. European Neurology 1997;37:3–12.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Barinagarrementeria F, Amaya LE, Cantu C. Causes and mechanisms of cerebellar infarction in young patients. Stroke 1997;28:2400–2404.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Loddenkemper T, Morris HH, Perl J. Carotid artery dissection after the intracarotid amobarbital test. Neurology 2002;59:1797–1798.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Brandt T, Grond-Ginsbach C. Spontaneous cervical artery dissection: From risk factors toward pathogenesis. Stroke 2002;33:657–658.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Touzé E, Gauvrit JY, Moulin T, Meder JF, Bracard S, Mas JL. Risk of stroke and recurrent dissection after a cervical artery dissection—A multicenter study. Neurology 2003;61:1347–1351.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Bassi P, Lattuada P, Gomitoni A. Cervical cerebral artery dissection: A multicenter prospective study. Neurological Sciences 2003;24(Suppl 1):S4–S7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Beletsky V, Nadareishvili Z, Lynch J, Shuaib A, Woolfenden A, Norris JW. Cervical arterial dissection: Time for a therapeutic trial? Stroke 2003;34:2856–2860.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Dziewas R, Konrad C, Drager B, et al. Cervical artery dissection—clinical features, risk factors, therapy and outcome in 126 patients. Journal of Neurology 2003;250:1179–1184.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Pelkonen O, Tikkakoski T, Leinonen S, Pyhtinen J, Lepojarvi M, Sotaniemi K. Extracranial internal carotid and vertebral artery dissections: Angiographic spectrum, course and prognosis. Neuroradiology 2003;45:71–77.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Schievink WI, Mokri B, Whisnant JP. Internal carotid artery dissection in a community. Rochester, Minnesota, 1987–1992. Stroke 1993;24:1678–1680.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Bassetti C, Carruzzo A, Sturzenegger M, Tuncdogan E. Recurrence of cervical artery dissection—A prospective study of 81 patients. Stroke 1996;27:1804–1807.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Schievink WI, Mokri B, O'Fallon WM. Recurrent spontaneous cervical-artery dissection. New England Journal of Medicine 1994;330:393–397.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Atkinson JL, Piepgras DG, Huston J, 3rd, Mokri B. Cervical artery dissections: Evidence for redissection in previously dissected arteries: Report of three cases. Neurosurgery 2002;51:797–801.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Goldstein LB, Gray L, Hulette CM. Stroke due to recurrent ipsilateral carotid artery dissection in a young adult. Stroke 1995;26:480–483.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Leys D, Moulin T, Stojkovic T, Begey S, Chavot D. Follow-up of patients with history of cervical artery dissection. Cerebrovascular Diseases 1995;5:43–49.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Guillon B, Levy C, Bousser MG. Internal carotid artery dissection: An update. Journal of the Neurological Sciences 1998;153:146–158.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Schievink WI, Michels VV, Piepgras DG. Neurovascular manifestations of heritable connective tissue disorders. A review. Stroke 1994;25:889–903.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Schievink WI, Mokri B, Piepgras DG. Angiographic frequency of saccular intracranial aneurysms in patients with spontaneous cervical artery dissection. Journal of Neurosurgery 1992;76:62–66.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Tzourio C, Cohen A, Lamisse N, Biousse V, Bousser MG. Aortic root dilatation in patients with spontaneous cervical artery dissection. Circulation 1997;95:2351–2353.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. van den Berg JSP, Limburg M, Kappelle LJ, Pals G, Arwert F, Westerveld A. The role of type III collagen in spontaneous cervical arterial dissections. Annals of Neurology 1998;43:494–498.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Brandt T, Hausser I, Orberk E, et al. Ultrastructural connective tissue abnormalities in patients with spontaneous cervicocerebral artery dissections. Annals of Neurology 1998;44:281–285.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Schievink WI, Wijdicks EF, Michels VV, Vockley J, Godfrey M. Heritable connective tissue disorders in cervical artery dissections: A prospective study. Neurology 1998;50:1166–1169.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Guillon B, Tzourio C, Biousse V, Adrai V, Bousser MG, Touboul PJ. Arterial wall properties in carotid artery dissection: An ultrasound study. Neurology 2000;55:663–666.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Brandt T, Orberk E, Weber R, et al. Pathogenesis of cervical artery dissections—Association with connective tissue abnormalities. Neurology 2001;57:24–30.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Grond-Ginsbach C, Weber R, Haas J, et al. Mutations in the COL5A1 coding sequence are not common in patients with spontaneous cervical artery dissections. Stroke 1999;30:1887–1890.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Koch S, Rabinstein AA, Romano JG, Forteza A. Diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging in internal carotid artery dissection. Archives of Neurology 2004;61:510–512.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Hart RG, Easton JD. Dissections of cervical and cerebral arteries. Neurologic Clinics 1983;1:155–182.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. North KN, Whiteman DA, Pepin MG, Byers PH. Cerebrovascular complications in Ehlers-Danlos syndrome type IV. Annals of Neurology 1995;38:960–964.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Assendelft WJ, Bouter LM, Knipschild PG. Complications of spinal manipulation: A comprehensive review of the literature. Journal of Family Practice 1996;42:475–480.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Chan MT, Nadareishvili ZG, Norris JW. Diagnostic strategies in young patients with ischemic stroke in Canada. Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences 2000;27:120–124.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Rothwell DM, Bondy SJ, Williams JI. Chiropractic manipulation and stroke: A population-based case-control study. Stroke 2001;32:1054–1060.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Bousser MG. Chiropractic manipulation and stroke. Editorial Comment. Stroke 2001;32:1059–1060.

    Google Scholar 

  34. Grau AJ, Brandt T, Buggle F, et al. Association of cervical artery dissection with recent infection. Archives of Neurology 1999;56:851–856.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Guillon B, Berthet K, Benslamia L, Bertrand M, Bousser MG, Tzourio C. Infection and the risk of spontaneous cervical artery dissection: A case-control study. Stroke 2003;34:e79–e81.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Chao CL, Kuo TL, Lee YT. Effects of methionine-induced hyperhomocysteinemia on endothelium-dependent vasodilation and oxidative status in healthy adults. Circulation 2000;101:485–490.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Gallai V, Caso V, Paciaroni M, et al. Mild hyperhomocyst(e)inemia: A possible risk factor for cervical artery dissection. Stroke 2001;32:714–718.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Pezzini A, Del Zotto E, Archetti S, et al. Plasma homocysteine concentration, C677T MTHFR genotype, and 844ins68bp CBS genotype in young adults with spontaneous cervical artery dissection and atherothrombotic stroke. Stroke 2002;33:664–669.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Grond-Ginsbach C, Engelter S, Werner I, et al. Alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency alleles are not associated with cervical artery dissections. Neurology 2004;62:1190–1192

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Vila N, Millan M, Ferrer X, Riutort N, Escudero D. Levels of alpha1-antitrypsin in plasma and risk of spontaneous cervical artery dissections: A case-control study. Stroke 2003;34:e168–e169.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Konrad C, Langer C, Muller GA, et al. Protease inhibitors in spontaneous cervical artery dissection. Stroke 2005:9–13.

  42. Baumgartner RW, Arnold M, Baumgartner I, et al. Carotid dissection with and without ischemic events: Local symptoms and cerebral artery findings. Neurology 2001;57:827–832.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Brandt T. Cervical artery dissection: Update and new results of research of the pathogenesis. Cerebrovascular Diseases 2000;10(Suppl 4):5–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Josien E. Extracranial vertebral artery dissection: Nine cases. Journal of Neurology 1992;239:327–330.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Chen CJ, Tseng YC, Lee TH, Hsu HL, See LC. Multisection CT angiography compared with catheter angiography in diagnosing vertebral artery dissection. AJNR: American Journal of Neuroradiology 2004;25:769–774.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Lucas C, Moulin T, Deplanque D, Tatu L, Chavot D. Stroke patterns of internal carotid artery dissection in 40 patients. Stroke 1998;29:2646–2648.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Benninger DH, Georgiadis D, Kremer C, Studer A, Nedeltchev K, Baumgartner RW. Mechanism of ischemic infarct in spontaneous carotid dissection. Stroke 2004;35:482–485.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Molina CA, Alvarez-Sabin J, Schonewille W, et al. Cerebral microembolism in acute spontaneous internal carotid artery dissection. Neurology 2000;55:1738–1740.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Koennecke HC, Trocio SH, Mast H, Mohr JP. Microemboli on transcranial Doppler in patients with spontaneous carotid artery dissection. Journal of Neuroimaging 1997;7:217–220.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Srinivasan J, Newel DW, Sturzenegger M, Mayberg MR, Winn HR. Transcranial Doppler in the evaluation of internal carotid artery dissection. Stroke 1996;27:1226–1230.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Steinke W, Schwartz A, Hennerici M. Topography of cerebral infarction associated with carotid artery dissection. Journal of Neurology 1996;243:323–328.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Milhaud D, De Freitas GR, Van Melle G, Bogousslavsky J. Occlusion due to carotid artery dissection—A more severe disease than previously suggested. Archives of Neurology 2002;59:557–561.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Caplan LR, Hennerici M. Impaired clearance of emboli (washout) is an important link between hypoperfusion, embolism, and ischemic stroke. Archives of Neurology 1998;55:1475–1482.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Hughes JR, Stead LF, Lancaster T. Antidepressants for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2003.

  55. Sharif AA, Remley KB, Clark HB. Middle cerebral artery dissection: A clinicopathologic study. Neurology 1995;45:1929–1931.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Chaves C, Estol C, Esnaola MM, et al. Spontaneous intracranial internal carotid artery dissection. Report of 10 patients. Archives of Neurology 2002;59:977–981.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Kremer C, Mosso M, Georgiadis D, et al. Carotid dissection with permanent and transient occlusion or severe stenosis: Long-term outcome. Neurology 2003;60:271–275.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Biousse V, D'Anglejan-Chatillon J, Touboul PJ, Amarenco P, Bousser MG. Time course of symptoms in extracranial carotid artery dissections. A series of 80 patients. Stroke 1995;26:235–239.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Anson J, Crowell RM. Cervicocranial arterial dissection. Neurosurgery 1991;29:89–96.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Fisher CM, Ojemann RG, Roberson GH. Spontaneous dissection of cervico-cerebral arteries. Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences 1978;5:9–19.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Mokri B, Sundt TMJ, Houser OW, Piepgras DG. Spontaneous dissection of the cervical internal carotid artery. Annals of Neurology 1986;10:126–138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Touze E, Randoux B, Meary E, Arquizan C, Meder JF, Mas JL. Aneurysmal forms of cervical artery dissection: Associated factors and outcome. Stroke 2001;32:418–423.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Sturzenegger M. Ultrasound findings in spontaneous carotid artery dissection. The value of duplex sonography. Archives of Neurology 1991;48:1057–1063.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Steinke W, Rautenberg W, Schwartz A, Hennerici M. Noninvasive monitoring of internal carotid artery dissection. Stroke 1994;25:998–1005.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Levy C, Laissy JP, Raveau V, et al. Carotid and vertebral artery dissections: Three-dimensional time-of-flight MR angiography and MR imaging versus conventional angiography. Radiology 1994;190:97–103.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Nguyen Bui L, Brant-Zawadzki M, Verghese P, Gillan G. Magnetic resonance angiography of cervicocranial dissection. Stroke 1993;24:126–131.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Röther J, Wentz K-U, Rautenberg W, Schwartz A, Hennerici M. Magnetic resonance angiography in vertebrobasilar ischemia. Stroke 1993;24:1310–1315.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Mascalchi M, Bianchi MC, Mangiafico S, et al. MRI and MR angiography of vertebral artery dissection. Neuroradiology 1997;39:329–340.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Zuber M, Meary E, Meder JF, Mas JL. Magnetic resonance imaging and dynamic CT scan in cervical artery dissections. Stroke 1994;25:576–581.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Leclerc X, Godefroy O, Salhi A, Lucas C, Leys D, Pruvo JP. Helical CT for the diagnosis of extracranial internal carotid artery dissection. Stroke 1996;27:461–466.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Dreier JP, Lurtzing F, Kappmeier M, et al. Delayed occlusion after internal carotid artery dissection under heparin. Cerebrovascular Diseases 2004;18:296–303.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Hill MD, Hwa G, Perry JR. Extracranial cervical artery dissection. Stroke 2000;31:799.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Adams HP, Adams RJ, Brott T, et al. Guidelines for the early management of patients with ischemic stroke: A Scientific Statement from the Stroke Council of the American Stroke Association. Stroke 2003;34:1056–1083.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Lyrer P, Engelter S. Antithrombotic drugs for carotid artery dissection. Stroke 2004;35:613–614.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Grosman H, Fornasier VL, Bonder D, Livingston KE, Platts ME. Dissecting aneurysm of the cerebral arteries. Case report. Journal of Neurosurgery 1980;53:693–697.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Hochberg FH, Bean C, Fisher CM, Roberson GH. Stroke in a 15-year-old girl secondary to terminal carotid dissection. Neurology 1975;25:725–729.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Arnold M, Nedeltchev K, Sturzenegger M, et al. Thrombolysis in patients with acute stroke caused by cervical artery dissection—Analysis of 9 patients and review of the literature. Archives of Neurology 2002;59:549–553.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Derex L, Nighoghossian N, Turjman F, et al. Intravenous tPA in acute ischemic stroke related to internal carotid artery dissection. Neurology 2000;54:2159–2161.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Zaidat OO, Fernandes Filho JA, Singh G, Suarez JI. Thrombolytic therapy for acute extra-cranial artery dissection: Report of two cases. Arquivos de Neuro-Psiquiatria 2001;59:936–938.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Sampognaro G, Turgut T, Conners JJ, 3rd, White C, Collins T, Ramee SR. Intra-arterial thrombolysis in a patient presenting with an ischemic stroke due to spontaneous internal carotid artery dissection. Catheterization & Cardiovascular Interventions 1999;48:312–315.

    Google Scholar 

  81. Restrepo L, Pradilla G, Llinas R, Beauchamp NJ. Perfusion- and diffusion-weighted MR imaging-guided therapy of vertebral artery dissection: Intraarterial thrombolysis through an occipital vertebral anastomosis. AJNR: American Journal of Neuroradiology 2003;24:1823–1826.

    Google Scholar 

  82. Malek AM, Higashida RT, Phatouros CC, et al. Endovascular management of extracranial carotid artery dissection achieved using stent angioplasty. AJNR: American Journal of Neuroradiology 2000;21:1280–1292.

    Google Scholar 

  83. Muller BT, Luther B, Hort W, Neumann-Haefelin T, Aulich A, Sandmann W. Surgical treatment of 50 carotid dissections: Indications and results. Journal of Vascular Surgery 2000;31:980–988.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Djouhri H, Guillon B, Brunereau L, et al. MR angiography for the long-term follow-up of dissecting aneurysms of the extracranial internal carotid artery. AJR: American Journal of Roentgenology 2000;174:1137–1140.

    Google Scholar 

  85. Mokri B, Houser OW, Sandok BA, Piepgras DG. Spontaneous dissections of the vertebral arteries. Neurology 1988;38:880–885.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Mas J-L, Bousser M-G, Hasboun D, Laplane D. Extracranial vertebral artery dissections: A review of 13 cases. Stroke 1987;18:1037–1047.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Bogousslavsky J, Despland P-D, Regli F. Spontaneous carotid dissection with acute stroke. Archives of Neurology 1987;44:137–140.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Engelter ST, Lyrer PA, Kirsch EC, Steck AJ. Long-term follow-up after extracranial internal carotid artery dissection. European Neurology 2000;44:199–204.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Sturzenegger M. Spontaneous internal carotid artery dissection: Early diagnosis and management in 44 patients. Journal of Neurology 1995;242:231–238.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Hunn M, Robinson S, Wakefield L, Mossman S, Abernethy D. Granulomatous angiitis of the CNS causing spontaneous intracerebral haemorrhage: The importance of leptomeningeal biopsy. Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry 1998;65:956–957.

    Google Scholar 

  91. Pessin MS, Adelman LS, Barbas NR. Spontaneous intracranial carotid artery dissection. Stroke 1989;20:1100–1103.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Manz HJ, Vester J, Lavenstein B. Dissecting aneurysm of cerebral arteries in childhood and adolescence. Case report and literature review of 20 cases. Virchows Archiv A, Pathological Anatomy & Histology 1979;384:325–335.

    Google Scholar 

  93. Koyama S, Kotani A, Sasaki J. Spontaneous dissecting aneurysm of the anterior cerebral artery: Report of two cases. Surgical Neurology 1996;46:55–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Schievink WI, Mokri B, Piepgras DG. Spontaneous dissections of cervicocephalic arteries in childhood and adolescence. Neurology 1994;44:1607–1612.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Watts RA, Scott DG. Classification and epidemiology of the vasculitides. Baillieres Clinical Rheumatology 1997;11:191–217.

    Google Scholar 

  96. Ferro JM. Vasculitis of the central nervous system. Journal of Neurology 1998;245:766–776.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Jennette JC, Falk RJ, Milling DM. Pathogenesis of vasculitis. Seminars in Neurology 1994;14:291–299.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Cohen BA, Biller J. Hemorrhagic stroke due to cerebral vasculitis and the role of immunosuppressive therapy. Neurosurgery Clinics of North America 1992;3:611–624.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Takano K, Sadoshima S, Ibayashi S, Ichiya Y, Fujishima M. Altered cerebral hemodynamics and metabolism in Takayasu's arteritis with neurological deficits. Stroke 1993;24:1501–1506.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Montalban J, Rio J, Khamastha M, et al. Value of immunologic testing in stroke patients. A prospective multicenter study. Stroke 1994;25:2412–2415.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Kristensen B, Malm J, Carlberg B, et al. Epidemiology and etiology of ischemic stroke in young adults aged 18 to 44 years in northern Sweden. Stroke 1997;28:1702–1709.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Hilt DC, Buchholz D, Krumholz A, Weiss H, Wolinsky JS. Herpes zoster ophthalmicus and delayed contralateral hemiparesis caused by cerebral angiitis: Diagnosis and management approaches. Annals of Neurology 1983;14:543–553.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Pratesi R, Freemon FR, Lowry JL. Herpes zoster ophthalmicus with contralateral hemiplegia. Archives of Neurology 1977;34:640–641.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Hang LM, Nakamura RM. Current concepts and advances in clinical laboratory testing for autoimmune diseases. Critical Reviews in Clinical Laboratory Sciences 1997;34:275–311.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Kallenberg CG. Laboratory findings in the vasculitides. Baillieres Clinical Rheumatology 1997;11:395–421.

    Google Scholar 

  106. Berlit P. Cerebral vasculitis. Nervenarzt 2004;75:817–828.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Harris KG, Tran DD, Sickels WJ, Cornell SH, Yuh WTC. Diagnosing intracranial vasculitis: The role of MR and MR angiography. AJNR: American Journal of Neuroradiology 1994;15:317–330.

    Google Scholar 

  108. Moritani T, Hiwatashi A, Shrier DA, Wang HZ, Numaguchi Y, Westesson PL. CNS vasculitis and vasculopathy. Efficacy and usefulness of diffusion-weighted echoplanar MR imaging. Clinical Imaging 2004;28:261–270.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Kwon HM, Roh JK, Chang GY. Midbrain vasculitic aneurysms. Neurology 2004;63:145.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Chu CT, Leithe LG, Graffagnino C, Goldstein LB, Hulette CM. Diagnosis of intracranial vasculitis: A multidisciplinary approach. Journal of Neuropathology & Experimental Neurology 1997;56:601.

    Google Scholar 

  111. Woolfenden AR, Tong DC, Marks MP, Ali AO, Albers GW. Angiographically defined primary angiitis of the CNS. Is it really benign? Neurology 1998;51:183–188.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Alhalabi M, Moore PM. Serial angiography in isolated angiitis of the central nervous system. Neurology 1994;44:1221–1226.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Vollmer TL, Guarnaccia J, Harrington W, Pacia SV, Petroff OA. Idiopathic granulomatous angiitis of the central nervous system. Diagnostic challenges. Archives of Neurology 1993;50:925–930.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Futrell N, Millikan C. Frequency, etiology, and prevention of stroke in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Stroke 1989;20:583–591.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Kitagawa Y, Gotoh F, Koto A, Okayasu H. Stroke in systemic lupus erythematosus. Stroke 1990;21:1533–1539.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Kwon SU, Koh JY, Kim JS. Vertebrobasilar artery territory infarction as an initial manifestation of systemic lupus erythematosus. Clinical Neurology & Neurosurgery 1999;101:62–67.

    Google Scholar 

  117. Mitsias P, Levine SR. Large cerebral vessel occlusive disease in systemic lupus erythematosus. Neurology 1994;44:385–393.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Roldan CA, Shively BK, Crawford MH. An echocardiographic study of valvular heart disease associated with systemic lupus erythematosus. New England Journal of Medicine 1996;335:1424–1430.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Hart RG, Miller VT, Coull BM, Bril V. Cerebral infarction associated with lupus anticoagulants—preliminary report. Stroke 1984;15:114–118.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Petri M, Roubenoff R, Dallal GE, Nadeau MR, Selhub J, Rosenberg IH. Plasma homocysteine as a risk factor for atherothrombotic events in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lancet 1996;348:1120–1124.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Khamashta MA, Cuadrado MJ, Mujic F, Taub NA, Hunt BJ, Hughes GRV. The management of thrombosis in the antiphospholipid-antibody syndrome. New England Journal of Medicine 1995;332:993–997.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Hoffmann M, Corr P, Robbs J. Cerebrovascular findings in Takayasu disease. Journal of Neuroimaging 2000;10:84–90.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Molnar P, Hegedus K. Direct involvement of intracerebral arteries in Takayasu's arteritis. Acta Neuropathologica 1984;63:83–86.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Klos K, Flemming KD, Petty GW, Luthra HS. Takayasu's arteritis with arteriographic evidence of intracranial vessel involvement. Neurology 2003;60:1550–1551.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Kumral E, Evyapan D, Aksu K, Keser G, Kabasakal Y, Balkir K. Microembolus detection in patients with Takayasu's arteritis. Stroke 2002;33:712–716.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Genc BO, Genc E, Acik L, Ilhan S, Paksoy Y. Acquired ocular motor apraxia from bilateral frontoparietal infarcts associated with Takayasu arteritis. Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry 2004;75:1651–1652.

    Google Scholar 

  127. Etgen T, Winbeck K, Conrad B, Sander D. Hemiballism with insular infarction as first manifestation of Takayasu's arteritis in association with chronic hepatitis B. Journal of Neurology 2003;250:226–229.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Morelli S, Perrone C, Paroli M. Recurrent cerebral infarctions in polyarteritis nodosa with circulating antiphospholipid antibodies and mitral valve disease. Lupus 1998;7:51–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Provenzale JM, Allen NB. Neuroradiologic findings in polyarteritis nodosa. AJNR: American Journal of Neuroradiology 1996;17:1119–1126.

    Google Scholar 

  130. Sehgal M, Swanson JW, DeRemee RA, Colby TV. Neurologic manifestations of Churg-Strauss syndrome. Mayo Clinic Proceedings 1995;70:337–341.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Dinc A, Soy M, Pay S, Simsek I, Erdem H, Sobaci G. A case of Churg-Strauss syndrome presenting with cortical blindness. Clinical Rheumatology 2000;19:318–320.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Kang DW, Kim DE, Yoon BW, Seo JW, Roh JK. Delayed diagnosis: Recurrent cerebral infarction associated with Churg-Strauss syndrome. Cerebrovascular Diseases 2001;12:280–281.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. Liou HH, Liu HM, Chiang IP, Yeh TS, Chen RC. Churg-Strauss syndrome presented as multiple intracerebral hemorrhage. Lupus 1997;6:279–282.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Nishino H, Rubino FA, DeRemee RA, Swanson JW, Parisi JE. Neurological involvement in Wegener's granulomatosis: An analysis of 324 consecutive patients at the Mayo Clinic. Annals of Neurology 1993;33:4–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Bares M, Muchova M, Dufek M, Litzman J, Krupa P, Rektor I. Wegener's granulomatosis: Ischemic stroke as the first clinical manifestation. Journal of Neurology 2002;249:1593–1594.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Siva A. Vasculitis of the nervous system. Journal of Neurology 2001;248:451–468.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Sivakumar MR, Chandrakantan A. A rare case of stroke in Wegener's granulomatosis. Cerebrovascular Diseases 2002;13:143–144.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Pathak R, Gabor AJ. Scleroderma and central nervous system vasculitis. Stroke 1991;22:410–413.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Averbuch-Heller L, Steiner I, Abramsky O. Neurologic manifestations of progressive systemic sclerosis. Archives of Neurology 1992;49:1292–1295.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Ishida K, Kamata T, Tsukagoshi H, Tanizaki Y. Progressive systemic sclerosis with CNS vasculitis and cyclosporin A therapy. Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry 1993;56:720.

    Google Scholar 

  141. Carolei A, Sacco S. Central nervous system vasculitis. Neurological Sciences 2003;24 (Suppl 1):S8–S10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Schmidley JW. Isolated CNS angiitis. In: Schmidley JW, ed. Central Nervous System Angiitis Woburn: Butterworth-Heinemann; 2000:1–28.

  143. Campi A, Benndorf G, Filippi M, Reganati P, Martinelli V, Terreni MR. Primary angiitis of the central nervous system: Serial MRI of brain and spinal cord. Neuroradiology 2001;43:599–607.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  144. Calabrese LH, Furlan AJ, Gragg LA, Ropos TJ. Primary angiitis of the central nervous system: Diagnositic criteria and clinical approach. Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine 1992;59:293–306.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Ay H, Sahin G, Saatci I, Soylemezoglu F, Saribas O. Primary angiitis of the central nervous system and silent cortical hemorrhages. AJNR: American Journal of Neuroradiology 2002;23:1561–1563.

    Google Scholar 

  146. Lee SY, Chu K, Park KI, Jeong SW, Yoon BW. Diffusion-weighted MR findings in isolated angiitis of the central nervous system (IACNS). Acta Neurologica Scandinavica 2003;108:346–351.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Yuh WT, Ueda T, Maley JE. Perfusion and diffusion imaging: A potential tool for improved diagnosis of CNS vasculitiS. AJNR: American Journal of Neuroradiology 1999;20:87–89.

    Google Scholar 

  148. Yilmaz EY, Pritz MB, Bruno A, Lopez-Yunez A, Biller J. Moyamoya. Indiana University Medical Center experience. Archives of Neurology 2001;58:1274–1278.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. Bruno A, Adams HP, Jr., Biller J, Rezai K, Cornell S, Aschenbrener CA. Cerebral infarction due to moyamoya disease in young adults. Stroke 1988;19:826–833.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Yonekawa Y, Kahn N. Moyamoya disease. Advances in Neurology 2003;92:113–118.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  151. Houkin K, Kuroda S, Nakayama N. Cerebral revascularization for moyamoya disease in children. Neurosurgery Clinics of North America 2001;12:575–584.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  152. Srinivasan J, Britz GW, Newell DW. Cerebral revascularization for moyamoya disease in adults. Neurosurgery Clinics of North America 2001;12:585–594.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  153. Komiyama M, Yasui T, Kitano S, Sakamoto H, Fujitani K, Matsuo S. Moyamoya disease and pregnancy: Case report and review of the literature. Neurosurgery 1998;43:360–368.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Medicine (Neurology), Duke Center for Cerebrovascular Disease, Durham Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27710

    Osvaldo Camilo & Larry B. Goldstein

  2. Duke University Medical Center, Box 3651, Durham, NC, 27710

    Larry B. Goldstein

Authors
  1. Osvaldo Camilo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Larry B. Goldstein
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Larry B. Goldstein.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Camilo, O., Goldstein, L.B. Non-Atherosclerotic Vascular Disease in the Young. J Thromb Thrombolysis 20, 93–103 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11239-005-3203-7

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11239-005-3203-7

Key Words

Search

Navigation