Abstract
LGBTIQ children and adolescents experience disproportionate levels of bullying. Safe Schools, an Australian anti-bullying program, has recently been a site of public debate, with parents and their imagined concerns being central to the debate. This study investigated how parents construct gender, sexuality, and bullying, in relation to Safe Schools. Utilising Critical Discourse Analysis, we analysed 11 parent interviews and identified four broad discursive themes: heterosexual anxiety, transhysteria, the contested ecology of bullying, and resistance. Many parents feared that children will be harmed mentally and sexually by exposure to the program, and that bullying is an isolated phenomenon. These attitudes serve a social function of maintaining heterosexual and cisgender hegemony, and a psychic function of disavowing the fluid nature of subjectivity. There was also evidence of resistance to these attitudes, with many contending that Safe Schools is necessary, due to bullying being viewed as a social phenomenon informed by homophobia and transphobia. Hostility towards transgender people was notable amongst parents. The discourses identified in this research highlight the strength of current anxieties around children and sexual subjectivity and how they function to undermine the lives of LGBTIQ people, including children who would benefit most from a meaningful implementation of Safe Schools.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adler, A. (2011). To catch a predator. Columbia Journal of Gender and Law, 21(2), 130–158. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1685867.
Alcorn, G. (2016, December 14). The reality of Safe Schools: more a life-saving support than queer theory classroom invasion. The Guardian. Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2016/dec/14/safe-schools-roz-ward-life-saving-support-queer-theory-classroom
Almeida, J., Johnson, R. M., Corliss, H. L., Molnar, B. E., & Azrael, D. (2009). Emotional distress among LGBT youth: The influence of perceived discrimination based on sexual orientation. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38(7), 1001–1014. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-009-9397-9.
Álvarez-García, D., García, T., & Núñez, J. C. (2015). Predictors of school bullying perpetration in adolescence: A systematic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 23, 126–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2015.05.007.
Anderson, E. (2010). Inclusive masculinity: The changing nature of masculinities. New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203871485.
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2018, February 16). Crime Victimisation, Australia, 2016-17. Retrieved from http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/4530.0
Blommaert, J., & Bulcaen, C. (2000). Critical discourse analysis. Annual Review of Anthropology, 29, 447–466. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.29.1.447.
Boulay, N., Yeung, B., Leung, C., & Burns, D. P. (2014). LGBTQ role models and curricular controversy in Canada: A student symposium. Philosophical Inquiry in Education, 22(1), 19.
Butler, J. (1990). Gender trouble: Feminism and the subversion of identity. New York: Routledge.
Butler, J. (1993). Critically Queer. GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies, 1(1), 17–32. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-137-07412-6_13.
Butler, J. (1995). Melancholy gender—refused identification. Psychoanalytic Dialogues, 5(2), 165–180. https://doi.org/10.1080/10481889509539059.
Butler, J. (1997a). Excitable speech: A politics of the performative. New York: Routledge.
Butler, J. (1997b). The psychic life of power: Theories in subjection. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Case, K. A., Hensley, R., & Anderson, A. (2014). Reflecting on heterosexual and male privilege: Interventions to raise awareness. Journal of Social Issues, 70(4), 722–740. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12088.
Dick, S. (2009). Homophobic hate crime: Findings from the Gay British Crime Survey 2008. Safer Communities, 8(4), 35–42. https://doi.org/10.1108/17578043200900036.
Drasin, H., Beals, K. P., Elliott, M. N., Lever, J., Klein, D. J., & Schuster, M. A. (2008). Age cohort differences in the developmental milestones of gay men. Journal of Homosexuality, 54(4), 381–399. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918360801991372.
Duggan, L. (2001). Making it perfectly queer. In A. C. Herrmann & A. J. Stewart (Eds.), Theorizing feminism: Parallel trends in the humanities and social sciences. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Ellis, V. (2007). Sexualities and schooling in England after section 28: Measuring and managing “At-risk” identities. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Issues in Education, 4(3), 13–30. https://doi.org/10.1300/J367v04n03_03.
Ellis, M. L. (2008). Homophobia is the patient. Psychodynamic Practice, 14(3), 313–324. https://doi.org/10.1080/14753630802164412.
European Union Agency For Fundamental Rights (Ed.). (2014). EU LGBT survey: European Union lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender survey ; main results. The Publications Office of the European Union
Fitzpatrick, S., & Bussey, K. (2016). Effects of bullying victimization on mental health outcomes in Australian youth. In R. G. Menzies, M. Kyrios, & N. Kazantzis (Eds.), Innovations and future directions in the behavioural and cognitive therapies (pp. 29–33). Samford Valley, QLD: Australian Academic Press.
Formby, E. (2015). Limitations of focussing on homophobic, biphobic and transphobic ‘bullying’ to understand and address LGBT young people’s experiences within and beyond school. Sex Education, 15(6), 626–640. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681811.2015.1054024.
Foucault, M. (1972). The archaeology of knowledge. (S. Smith, Trans.) (1st American ed.). New York: Pantheon Books.
Foucault, M. (1978). The History of Sexuality: An Introduction. (R. Hurley, Trans.) (1st American ed, Vol. 1). New York: Pantheon Books.
Freud, S. (1915). The unconscious. In S. Freud, J. Strachey (Trans.), The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Vol. XIV. London: The Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psycho-Analysis.
Freud, S. (1927). The ego and the id. (J. Riviere, Trans.). London: The Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psycho-Analysis.
Galletta, A. (2013). Mastering the semi-structured interview and beyond: From research design to analysis and publication. New York: NYU Press.
Grosz, E. A. (1994). Volatile Bodies: Toward a corporeal feminism. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Hall, W. J., & Rodgers, G. K. (2019). Teachers’ attitudes toward homosexuality and the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer community in the United States. Social Psychology of Education, 22(1), 23–41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-018-9463-9.
Hawthorne, B. C. and M. (2016, December 16). News Corp banned from Midsumma Festival after “homophobic” Bill Leak cartoons. The Age. https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/news-corp-banned-from-midsumma-festival-after-homophobic-bill-leak-cartoons-20161216-gtcney.html
Hill, D. B., & Willoughby, B. L. B. (2005). The Development and validation of the genderism and transphobia scale. Sex Roles, 53(7–8), 531–544. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-7140-x.
Hillier, L., Jones, T., Monagle, M., Overton, N., Gahan, L., Blackman, J., Mitchell, A., & La Trobe University. Australian Research Centre in Sex, Health and Society. (2010). Writing themselves in 3 : the third national study on the sexual health and wellbeing of same sex attracted and gender questioning young people. Melbourne: Australian Research Centre in Sex, Health and Society, La Trobe University, http://www.glhv.org.au/files/wti3_web_sml.pdf
Hong, J. S., & Garbarino, J. (2012). Risk and protective factors for homophobic bullying in schools: An application of the social-ecological framework. Educational Psychology Review, 24(2), 271–285. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-012-9194-y.
Jackson, S. (2006). Interchanges: Gender, sexuality and heterosexuality—The complexity (and limits) of heteronormativity. Feminist Theory, 7(1), 105–121. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464700106061462.
Jagose, A. (1996). Queer theory: An introduction. New York: NYU Press.
Jones, T., & Hillier, L. (2013). Comparing trans-spectrum and same-sex-attracted youth in Australia: Increased risks, increased activisms. Journal of LGBT Youth, 10(4), 287–307. https://doi.org/10.1080/19361653.2013.825197.
Jones, K. P., Peddie, C. I., Gilrane, V. L., King, E. B., & Gray, A. L. (2016). Not so subtle: A meta-analytic investigation of the correlates of subtle and overt discrimination. Journal of Management, 42(6), 1588–1613. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206313506466.
Kelley, J. (2001). Attitudes towards homosexuality in 29 nations. Australian Social Monitor, 4(1), 15.
Kelly, J. (2016, February 23). PM bows to gay lessons backlash. The Australian. Retrieved from https://cdn.newsapi.com.au/link/34e93dab9ff1cf2037b8b0a9047ddf3c?domain=theaustralian.com.au
Law, B. (2017). Moral panic 101: Equality, acceptance and the safe schools scandal. Quarterly Essay, 67, 1–80.
Lea, T., de Wit, J., & Reynolds, R. (2014). Minority stress in Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual young adults in Australia: Associations with psychological distress, suicidality, and substance use. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 43(8), 1571–1578. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0266-6.
Leak, B. (2016a). [Cartoon]. Retrieved from https://www.sbs.com.au/comedy/article/2016/12/13/lesbian-tries-figure-out-what-heck-bill-leaks-latest-cartoon-about
Leak, B. (2016b). [Cartoon]. Retrieved from https://twitter.com/BLeakEksplayned/status/806973594982969344
Lee, C. (2001, April). The Impact of Belonging to a High School Gay/Straight Alliance. Presented at the Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Seattle, WA. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED452136
Leonard, W., Mitchell, A., Patel, S., & Fox, C. (2008). Coming forward: the underreporting of heterosexist violence and same sex partner abuse in Victoria. Bundoora, Vic.: The Australian Research Centre in Sex, Health & Society, La Trobe University. Retrieved from https://www.glhv.org.au/report/coming-forward-underreporting-heterosexist-violence-and-same-sex-partner-abuse-victoria
Link, B. G., Phelan, J. C., & Sullivan, G. (2018). Mental and physical health consequences of the stigma associated with mental illnesses. The Oxford Handbook of Stigma, Discrimination, and Health.. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190243470.013.26.
Marchiondo, L. A., Ran, S., & Cortina, L. M. (2018). Modern Discrimination. In A. J. Colella & E. B. King (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of workplace discrimination. New York: Oxford University Press.
McGregor, S. L. T. (2003). Critical discourse analysis: A primer. Kappa Omicron Nu FORUM, 15(1). Retrieved from http://www.kon.org/archives/forum/15-1/mcgregorcda.html/
Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice as stress: Conceptual and measurement problems. American Journal of Public Health, 93(2), 262–265. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.93.2.262.
Monks, C. P., & Smith, P. K. (2010). Definitions of bullying: Age differences in understanding of the term, and the role of experience. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 24(4), 801–821. https://doi.org/10.1348/026151005X82352.
Nadal, K. L., Issa, M.-A., Leon, J., Meterko, V., Wideman, M., & Wong, Y. (2011). Sexual orientation microaggressions: “Death by a thousand cuts” for lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth. Journal of LGBT Youth, 8(3), 234–259. https://doi.org/10.1080/19361653.2011.584204.
Nicholas, L. (2016, February 19). Explainer: what is Safe Schools Coalition? The Conversation. Retrieved from http://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-safe-schools-coalition-55018
Okin, S. M. (1997). Families and feminist theory: Some past and present issues. In H. L. Nelson (Ed.), Feminism and Families. Abingdon: Routledge.
Pearce, N., Cross, D., Monks, H., Waters, S., & Falconer, S. (2011). Current evidence of best practice in whole-school bullying intervention and its potential to inform cyberbullying interventions. Journal of Psychologists and Counsellors in Schools, 21(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1375/ajgc.21.1.1.
Peterson, C. (2013). The lies that bind: Heteronormative constructions of “family” in social work discourse. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 25(4), 486–508. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538720.2013.829394.
Rhodes, D., Nicholas, L., Jones, T. W., & Rawlings, V. (2016, March 18). Safe Schools review findings: experts respond. Retrieved April 1, 2018, from http://theconversation.com/safe-schools-review-findings-experts-respond-56425
Rich, A. (1980). Compulsory heterosexuality and lesbian existence. Signs, 5(4), 631–660.
Robinson, S., & Berman, A. (2010). Speaking out: Stopping homophobic and transphobic abuse in queensland. Brisbane: Australian Academic Press.
Rodwell, G. (2016). Safe schools: Challenges to moral panic and risk society theories—the politics of national school educational policy. Discourse Journal of Educational Research, 3(2), 15–24.
Safe Schools Coalition Australia. (2016a). All Of Us. Understanding Gender Diversity, Sexual Diversity and Intersex Topics For Years 7 and 8. Melbourne: The Foundation for Young Australians.
Safe Schools Coalition Australia. (2016b, May 18). A statement from Safe Schools Coalition Australia. Retrieved April 1, 2018, from http://www.safeschoolscoalition.org.au/a-statement-from-safe-schools-coalition-australia
Sandfort, T. G. M., Bos, H. M. W., Collier, K. L., & Metselaar, M. (2010). school environment and the mental health of sexual minority youths: A study among dutch young adolescents. American Journal of Public Health, 100(9), 1696–1700. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2009.183095.
Seidman, S. (1994). Queer-ing sociology, sociologizing queer theory: An introduction. Sociological Theory, 12(2), 166–177. https://doi.org/10.2307/201862.
Shaw, T., Cross, D., Thomas, L. T., & Zubrick, S. R. (2015). Bias in student survey findings from active parental consent procedures. British Educational Research Journal, 41(2), 229–243. https://doi.org/10.1002/berj.3137.
Span, S. A. (2011). Addressing University Students’ Anti-Gay Bias: An extension of the contact hypothesis. American Journal of Sexuality Education, 6(2), 192–205. https://doi.org/10.1080/15546128.2011.571957.
Sussal, C. M. (1998). A kleinian analysis of homophobia. Smith College Studies in Social Work, 68(2), 203–214. https://doi.org/10.1080/00377319809517524.
Turner, W. B. (2000). A genealogy of queer theory. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Ungar, S. (2001). Moral panic versus the risk society: The implications of the changing sites of social anxiety. The British Journal of Sociology, 52(2), 271–291. https://doi.org/10.1080/00071310120044980.
van Dijk, T. A. (1993). Principles of critical discourse analysis. Discourse & Society, 4(2), 249–283.
Walton, G. (2004). Bullying and Homophobia in Canadian Schools: The politics of policies, programs, and educational leadership. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Issues in Education, 1(4), 23–36. https://doi.org/10.1300/J367v01n04_03.
Willig, C. (2013). Introducing qualitative research in psychology. Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill Education.
Žižek, S. (1993). Tarrying with the negative: Kant, Hegel, and the critique of ideology. Durham: Duke University Press.
Acknowledgements
None.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The author declares that they have no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Shevlin, A., Gill, P.R. Parental attitudes to the Australian anti-bullying Safe Schools program: a critical discourse analysis. Soc Psychol Educ 23, 891–915 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-020-09561-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-020-09561-3