Abstract
Personal sensitivity to injustice from either a victim or an observer perspective shapes political attitudes and actions. Yet, little is known about the link between justice sensitivity, particularly from an observer perspective, and early radicalization. We investigate the hypotheses that victim and observer sensitivity are differentially linked to political orientation and early radicalization outcomes among adolescents and young adults. We assessed political orientations, justice sensitivity, and early radicalization (as attitudes or intentions regarding illegal/violent political strategies) among 303 young activists (Study 1) and 3715 ninth graders (Study 2). Across both studies, observer sensitivity was linked to stronger left-wing orientations, while victim sensitivity predicted stronger right-wing orientations. Yet, findings with respect to early radicalization outcomes were mixed: Among young adult activists in Study 1, observer (but not victim) justice sensitivity positively predicted both legal activism intentions and radicalization. Among ninth graders in Study 2, on the other hand, general and right-wing radicalization were negatively associated with observer sensitivity and positively associated with victim sensitivity. The results indicate that the link between observer sensitivity and early radicalization can be positive or negative depending on the age of the sample and the political context. We discuss potential reasons for the conflicting results, as well as limitations and implications for future research.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
Left-wing orientations are significantly correlated with higher observer sensitivity and lower support for general and right-wing radicalization, but showed a null correlation with left-wing radicalization. A visual inspection of the association between left-wing orientation and left-wing radicalization indicated a U-type relationship with participants from both ends (but particularly the right-wing end) of the political spectrum showing higher rates of agreement. In light of this obvious validity problem, we refrained from using left-wing radicalization as an outcome in Study 2.
References
Authors, A. (2020). Risk factors for political violence outcomes among young people: A meta-analysis. Manuscript in Preparation.
Bal, M., & van den Bos, K. (2017). From system acceptance to embracing alternative systems and system rejection: Tipping points in processes of radicalization. Translational Issues in Psychological Science,3(3), 241–253. https://doi.org/10.1037/tps0000123.
Baumert, A., Beierlein, C., Schmitt, M., Kemper, C. J., Kovaleva, A., Liebig, S., et al. (2014). Measuring four perspectives of justice sensitivity with two items each. Journal of Personality Assessment,96(3), 380–390. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2013.836526.
Baumert, A., & Schmitt, M. (2016). Justice sensitivity. In C. Sabbagh & M. Schmitt (Eds.), Handbook of Social Justice Theory and Research (pp. 161–180). New York: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-3216-0_9.
Beelmann, A., Malti, T., Noam, G. G., & Sommer, S. (2018). Innovation and integrity: Desiderata and future directions for prevention and intervention science. Prevention Science,19(3), 358–365. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-018-0869-6.
Bizina, M., & Gray, D. H. (2014). Radicalization of youth as a growing concern for counter-terrorism policy. Global Security Studies,5(1), 72–79.
Bondü, R., & Elsner, B. (2015). Justice sensitivity in childhood and adolescence. Social Development,24(2), 420–441. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12098.
Bondü, R., & Krahé, B. (2015). Links of justice and rejection sensitivity with aggression in childhood and adolescence. Aggressive Behavior,41(4), 353–368. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21556.
Bondü, R., & Richter, P. (2016). Linking forms and functions of aggression in adults to justice and rejection sensitivity. Psychology of Violence,6(2), 292–302. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039200.
Bouhana, N., & Wikstrom, P.-O. (2011). Al Qai’da-influenced radicalisation: A rapid evidence assessment guided by Situational Action Theory [Report]. Home Office Research, Development and Statistics Directorate. Retrieved March, 2019 from https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/al-qaida-influenced-radicalisation-a-rapid-evidence-assessment.
Breyer, B. (2015). Left-Right Self-Placement (ALLBUS). Zusammenstellung sozialwissenschaftlicher Items und Skalen (ZIS). https://doi.org/10.6102/zis83.
Desmarais, S. L., Simons-Rudolph, J., Brugh, C. S., Schilling, E., & Hoggan, C. (2017). The state of scientific knowledge regarding factors associated with terrorism. Journal of Threat Assessment and Management,4(4), 180–209. https://doi.org/10.1037/tam0000090.
Doosje, B., Moghaddam, F. M., Kruglanski, A. W., de Wolf, A., Mann, L., & Feddes, A. R. (2016). Terrorism, radicalization and de-radicalization. Current Opinion in Psychology,11, 79–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.06.008.
Doosje, B., van den Bos, K., Loseman, A., Feddes, A. R., & Mann, L. (2012). “My in-group is superior!” Susceptibility for radical right-wing attitudes and behaviors in Dutch youth. Negotiation and Conflict Management Research,5(3), 253–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-4716.2012.00099.x.
Doosje, B., Zimmermann, A., Küpper, B., Zick, A., & Meertens, R. (2011). Terrorist threat and perceived Islamic support for terrorist attacks as predictors of personal and institutional out-group discrimination and support for anti-immigration policies—evidence from 9 European countries. Revue Internationale de Psychologie Sociale, Tome,22(3), 203–233.
Edele, A., Dziobek, I., & Keller, M. (2013). Explaining altruistic sharing in the dictator game: The role of affective empathy, cognitive empathy, and justice sensitivity. Learning and Individual Differences,24, 96–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2012.12.020.
Fetchenhauer, D., & Huang, X. (2004). Justice sensitivity and distributive decisions in experimental games. Personality and Individual Differences,36(5), 1015–1029. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(03)00197-1.
Florez-Morris, M. (2007). Joining guerrilla groups in Colombia: Individual motivations and processes for entering a violent organization. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism,30(7), 615–634. https://doi.org/10.1080/10576100701385958.
Galtung, J. (1969). Violence, peace, and peace research. Journal of Peace Research,6(3), 167–191.
Gill, P., & Horgan, J. (2013). Who were the volunteers? The shifting sociological and operational profile of 1240 Provisional Irish Republican Army members. Terrorism and Political Violence,25(3), 435–456. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2012.664587.
Gill, P., Horgan, J., & Deckert, P. (2014). Bombing alone: Tracing the motivations and antecedent behaviors of lone-actor terrorists. Journal of Forensic Sciences,59(2), 425–435. https://doi.org/10.1111/1556-4029.12312.
Goede, L. -R., Schröder, C. P., & Lehmann, L. (2019). Perspektiven von Jugendlichen. Ergebnisse einer Befragung zu den Themen Politik, Religion und Gemeinschaft (Report No. 151). Retrieved from Criminological Research Institute of Lower Saxony Website https://kfn.de/wp-content/uploads/Forschungsberichte/FB_151.pdf.
Gollwitzer, M., Rothmund, T., Pfeiffer, A., & Ensenbach, C. (2009). Why and when justice sensitivity leads to pro- and antisocial behavior. Journal of Research in Personality,43(6), 999–1005. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2009.07.003.
Gollwitzer, M., Schmitt, M., Schalke, R., Maes, J., & Baer, A. (2005). Asymmetrical effects of justice sensitivity perspectives on prosocial and antisocial behavior. Social Justice Research,18(2), 183–201. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-005-7368-1.
Gollwitzer, M., Süssenbach, P., & Hannuschke, M. (2015). Victimization experiences and the stabilization of victim sensitivity. Frontiers in Psychology. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00439.
Gordts, S., Uzieblo, K., Neumann, C., Van den Bussche, E., & Rossi, G. (2017). Validity of the self-report psychopathy scales (SRP-III Full and Short Versions) in a community sample. Assessment,24(3), 308–325. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191115606205.
Haidt, J., & Graham, J. (2007). When morality opposes justice: Conservatives have moral intuitions that liberals may not recognize. Social Justice Research,20(1), 98–116. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-007-0034-z.
Jost, J. T. (2006). The end of the end of ideology. American Psychologist,61(7), 651–670. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.61.7.651.
King, M., & Taylor, D. M. (2011). The radicalization of homegrown jihadists: A review of theoretical models and social psychological evidence. Terrorism and Political Violence,23(4), 602–622. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2011.587064.
Kroh, M. (2007). Measuring left–right political orientation: The choice of response format. Public Opinion Quarterly,71(2), 204–220. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfm009.
Kunst, J. R., Boos, B., Kimel, S. Y., Obaidi, M., Shani, M., & Thomsen, L. (2018). Engaging in extreme activism in support of others’ political struggles: The role of politically motivated fusion with out-groups. PLoS ONE,13(1), e0190639. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0190639.
Lösel, F., King, S., Bender, D., & Jugl, I. (2018). Protective factors against extremism and violent radicalization: A systematic review of research. International Journal of Developmental Science,12(1–2), 89–102. https://doi.org/10.3233/DEV-170241.
Macdougall, A. I., van der Veen, J., Feddes, A. R., Nickolson, L., & Doosje, B. (2018). Different strokes for different folks: The role of psychological needs and other risk factors in early radicalisation. International Journal of Developmental Science,12(1–2), 37–50. https://doi.org/10.3233/DEV-170232.
Malti, T., Noam, G. G., Beelmann, A., & Sommer, S. (2016). Toward dynamic adaptation of psychological interventions for child and adolescent development and mental health. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology,45(6), 827–836. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2016.1239539.
McCauley, C., & Moskalenko, S. (2008). Mechanisms of political radicalization: Pathways toward terrorism. Terrorism and Political Violence,20(3), 415–433. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546550802073367.
McCauley, C., & Moskalenko, S. (2017). Understanding political radicalization: The two-pyramids model. American Psychologist,72(3), 205–216. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000062.
Moghaddam, F. M. (2005). The staircase to terrorism: A psychological exploration. The American Psychologist,60(2), 161–169. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.60.2.161.
Moskalenko, S., & McCauley, C. (2009). Measuring political mobilization: The distinction between activism and radicalism. Terrorism and Political Violence,21(2), 239–260. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546550902765508.
Nivette, A., Eisner, M., & Ribeaud, D. (2017). Developmental predictors of violent extremist attitudes: A test of general strain theory. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427817699035.
Oosterhoff, B., Shook, N. J., Clay, R., & Metzger, A. (2017). Differential and domain-specific associations among right-wing authoritarianism, social dominance orientation, and adolescent delinquency. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,43(9), 1296–1310. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217711937.
Pauwels, L., Brion, F., Schils, N., Laffineur, J., Verhage, A., De Ruyver, B., et al. (2014). Explaining and understanding the role of exposure to new social media on violent extremism: An integrative quantitative and qualitative approach. Gent: Academia Press.
Piurko, Y., Schwartz, S. H., & Davidov, E. (2011). Basic personal values and the meaning of left–right political orientations in 20 countries. Political Psychology,32(4), 537–561. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2011.00828.x.
Raman, L., & Winer, G. A. (2004). Evidence of more immanent justice responding in adults than children: A challenge to traditional developmental theories. British Journal of Developmental Psychology,22(2), 255–274. https://doi.org/10.1348/026151004323044609.
Ray, J. J. (1984). The reliability of short social desirability scales. Journal of Social Psychology,123(1), 133.
Riemann, R., Grubich, C., Hempel, S., Mergl, S., & Richter, M. (1993). Personality and attitudes towards current political topics. Personality and Individual Differences,15(3), 313–321. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(93)90222-O.
Rockey, J. (2009). Who is left-wing, and who just thinks they are?
Rosas, J. C., & Ferreira, A. R. (2014). Left and right: Critical junctures. In J. C. Rosas & A. R. Ferreira (Eds.), Left and right: The great dichotomy revisited. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Rothmund, T., Baumert, A., & Zinkernagel, A. (2014). The German “Wutbürger”: How Justice sensitivity accounts for individual differences in political engagement. Social Justice Research,27(1), 24–44. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-014-0202-x.
Rothmund, T., Becker, J. C., & Jost, J. T. (2016). The psychology of social justice in political thought and action. In C. Sabbagh & M. Schmitt (Eds.), Handbook of Social Justice Theory and Research (pp. 275–291). New York: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-3216-0_15.
Rothmund, T., Stavrova, O., & Schlösser, T. (2017). Justice concerns can feed nationalistic concerns and impede solidarity in the Euro crisis: How victim sensitivity translates into political attitudes. Social Justice Research,30(1), 48–71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-017-0280-7.
Sageman, M. (2004). Understanding terror networks. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Schils, N., & Verhage, A. (2017). Understanding how and why young people enter radical or violent extremist groups. International Journal of Conflict and Violence (IJCV),11(1), 473. https://doi.org/10.4119/UNIBI/ijcv.473.
Schmitt, M., Baumert, A., Gollwitzer, M., & Maes, J. (2010). The justice sensitivity inventory: Factorial validity, location in the personality facet space, demographic pattern, and normative Data. Social Justice Research,23(2), 211–238. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-010-0115-2.
Schmitt, M., Gollwitzer, M., Maes, J., & Arbach, D. (2005). Justice sensitivity: Assessment and location in the personality space. European Journal of Psychological Assessment,21(3), 202–211. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759.21.3.202.
Tausch, N., Becker, J. C., Spears, R., Christ, O., Saab, R., Singh, P., et al. (2011). Explaining radical group behavior: Developing emotion and efficacy routes to normative and nonnormative collective action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,101(1), 129–148. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022728.
Traut-Mattausch, E., Guter, S., Zanna, M. P., Jonas, E., & Frey, D. (2011). When citizens fight back: Justice sensitivity and resistance to political reform. Social Justice Research,24(1), 25–42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-011-0125-8.
Urdal, H. (2006). A clash of generations? Youth bulges and political violence. International Studies Quarterly,50(3), 607–629.
van Leeuwen, F., & Park, J. H. (2009). Perceptions of social dangers, moral foundations, and political orientation. Personality and Individual Differences,47(3), 169–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2009.02.017.
van Zomeren, M., Postmes, T., & Spears, R. (2008). Toward an integrative social identity model of collective action: A quantitative research synthesis of three socio-psychological perspectives. Psychological Bulletin,134(4), 504–535. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.4.504.
Vreeman, R. C., & Carroll, A. E. (2007). A systematic review of school-based interventions to prevent bullying. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine,161(1), 78–88. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.161.1.78.
Watts, M. W. (1999). Are there typical age curves in political behavior? The “age invariance” hypothesis and political socialization. Political Psychology,20(3), 477–499. https://doi.org/10.1111/0162-895X.00153.
Weber, H. (2019). Age structure and political violence: A re-assessment of the “youth bulge” hypothesis. International Interactions,45(1), 80–112. https://doi.org/10.1080/03050629.2019.1522310.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank our 54 test supervisors who helped to conduct study 2 as well as all research assistants and interns involved in data collection.
Funding
The studies were realized within the project “Radicalization within the digitial age (RadigZ)” supported by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF). The sponsor was not involved in study design; in the collection, analysis and interpretation of data; in the writing of the report; and in the decision to submit the article for publication.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical Approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee [blinded for peer review, details included in letter to the editor] and with the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study (including parents or legal guardians for students below age 18).
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Jahnke, S., Schröder, C.P., Goede, LR. et al. Observer Sensitivity and Early Radicalization to Violence Among Young People in Germany. Soc Just Res 33, 308–330 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-020-00351-y
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-020-00351-y