Abstract
This paper raises the issue whether public policy should focus on minimizing unhappiness rather than maximizing happiness. Using a cross-sectional multi-country dataset with 57,000 observations from 29 European countries, we show that unhappiness varies a great deal more across social groups than (high levels of) happiness does. Our findings are robust to several alternative specifications, using both self-reported life satisfaction and self-reported happiness, and different cut-off points for defining unhappiness (dissatisfaction) and high levels of happiness (satisfaction). While misery appears to strongly relate to broad social issues (such as unemployment, poverty, social isolation), bliss might be more of a private matter, with individual strategies and attitudes, hidden from the eye of a policy-maker. The social cost of unhappiness may be also reflected in the immense cost of mental health problems. Preventing avoidable unhappiness, however, needs to be complemented with other strategies for promoting happiness, perhaps on a more decentralized level, given the different causes of bliss and that of misery.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
Resolution A/RES/65/309. http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/65/309. Access date: 22 March 2013.
UN Resolution 66/281 adopted by the General Assembly. http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/66/281. Access date: 22 March 2013.
In most countries increasing attention is given to awareness campaigns and initiatives. This includes e.g. initiatives at various levels including governments to tackle stigma at the workplace (OECD 2011, p. 71).
The ESS4-2008 Edition 4.0 was released on 2 February 2011. Norwegian Social Science Data Services, Norway–Data Archive and distributor of ESS data.
By and large, however, people tend to have a preference for goods and situations which promote their well-being, as empirical evidence suggests (see e.g. Lelkes 2006).
References
Cantril, H. (1965). The pattern of human concerns. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Clark, A. E., Diener, E., Georgellis, Y., & Lucas, R. (2008). Lags and leads in life satisfaction: A test of the baseline hypothesis. Economic Journal, 118(529), F222–F243.
Clark, A. E., & Oswald, A. J. (1994). Unhappiness and unemployment. The Economic Journal, 104(424), 648–659.
Csíkszentmihályi, M. (1975). Beyond boredom and anxiety: Experiencing flow in work and play. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Csíkszentmihályi, M. (1996). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper and Row.
Cummins, R. (2012). Unipolar response scale: A suggested change for the PWI. Paper presented at the ISQOLS conference, Venice, 3 Nov 2012.
Davidson, R. J. (1992). Anterior cerebral asymmetry and the nature of emotion. Brain and Cognition, 20(1), 125–151.
Delle Fave, A., Brdar, I., Freire, T., Vella-Brodrick, D., & Wissing, M. P. (2012). The eudaimonic and hedonic components of happiness: Qualitative and quantitative findings. Social Indicators Research, 100(2), 185–207.
Delle Fave, A., & Massimini, F. (2005). The relevance of subjective well-being to social policies: Optimal experience and tailored intervention. In F. A. Huppert, N. Baylis, & B. Keverne (Eds.), The science of well-being (pp. 379–404). Oxford: OUP.
Diener, E., & Emmons, R. A. (1985). The independence of positive and negative affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 1105–1117.
Diener, E., Inglehart, R., & Tay, L. (2013). The theory and validity of life satisfaction scales. Social Indicators Research, 112(3), 497–527.
Diener, E., & Iran-Nejad, A. (1986). The relationship in experience between various types of affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 1031–1038.
Frey, B. S., & Stutzer, A. (2000). Maximising happiness? German Economic Review, 1(2), 145–167.
Gallie, D., & Russell, H. (1998). Unemployment and life satisfaction: A cross-cultural comparison. European Journal of Sociology, 39(2), 248–280.
Hoebel, B. G., Rada, P. V., Mark, G. P., & Pothos, E. N. (1999). Neural systems for reinforcement and inhibition of behavior: Relevance to eating, addiction, and depression. In D. Kahneman, E. Diener, & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Well-being: The foundations of hedonic psychology (pp. 558–572). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. London: Allen Lane.
Layard, R. (2012). Mental health: The new frontier for the Welfare State. CEP@21 lecture, 6 Mar 2012.
Lelkes, O. (2006). Knowing what is good for you. Empirical analysis of personal preferences and the “objective good”. Journal of Socio-Economics, 35(2. Special Issue: The Socio-Economics of Happiness), 285–307.
Lepper, H. S. (1998). Use of other-reports to validate subjective well-being measures. Social Indicators Research, 44(3), 367–379.
Loewenstein, G., & Adler, D. (1995). A bias in the prediction of tastes. The Economic Journal, 105(July), 929–937.
Loewenstein, G., O’Donoghue, T., & Rabin, M. (2003). Projection bias in predicting future utility. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 118(4), 1209–1248.
Loewenstein, G., & Schkade, D. (1999). Wouldn’t it be nice? Predicting future feelings. In D. Kahneman, E. Diener, & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Well-being: The foundation of hedonic psychology (pp. 85–105). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). The how of happiness: A scientific approach to getting the life you want. New York: Penguin Press.
Noll, H. -H., & Weick, S. (2010). Subjective well-being in Germany: Evolutions, determinants and policy implications. In B. Greve (Ed.), Happiness and social policy in europe (pp. 70–88). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
OECD. (2011). Mental health and work: Evidence, challenges and policy directions. Paris: OECD.
Olson, G. I., & Schober, B. I. (1993). The satisfied poor. Social Indicators Research, 28, 173–193.
Schwarz, N., & Strack, F. (1999). Reports of subjective well-being: Judgmental processes and their methodological implications. In D. Kahneman, E. Diener, & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Well-being. The foundations of hedonic psychology (pp. 61–84). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Seligman, M. E. P. (1975). Helplessness: On depression, development, and death. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman.
Seligman, M. E. P. (1991). Learned optimism: How to change your mind and your life. New York: Knopf.
Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfillment. New York: Free Press.
Van Praag, B. M. S., & Ferrer-i-Carbonell, A. (2004). Happiness quantified: A satisfaction calculus approach. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Whelan, C. T., & McGinnity, F. (2000). Unemployment and satisfaction: A European analysis. In S. Paugam & D. Gallie (Eds.), Welfare regimes and the experience of unemployment in Europe (pp. 286–306). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Winkelmann, L., & Winkelmann, R. (1998). Why are the unemployed so unhappy? Evidence from panel data. Economica, 65, 1–15.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Lelkes, O. Minimising Misery: A New Strategy for Public Policies Instead of Maximising Happiness?. Soc Indic Res 114, 121–137 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-013-0387-7
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-013-0387-7