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Developing Survey Measures of Inequality of Autonomy in the UK

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Abstract

This paper explores the development of survey questions to measure autonomy, interpreted as the degree of choice and control a person has in key areas of his or her life. A review of the theoretical literature leads to a conceptualisation of autonomy as consisting of three components: (1) self-reflection, (2) active or delegated decision-making, and (3) a wide variety of high-quality options. Three major barriers to autonomy are identified: (1) conditioned expectations, (2) coercion, and (3) structural constraints, including lack of advice and support. A suite of questions designed to assess these components and barriers was devised and subjected to cognitive testing with a purposive sample of 34 individuals with diverse characteristics. The tests resulted in refinements to the language, response categories and phrasing of questions. Analysis of responses indicated that issues of decision-making and range and quality of options were easier for respondents to grasp than questions about self-reflection, and conditioned expectations could be detected only indirectly. Nevertheless the components of, and barriers to, autonomy could be separately identified. The article concludes that despite limitations, survey measurement of the complex concept of autonomy is possible and revealing.

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Acknowledgments

We are very grateful to Sabina Alkire, Bethan Bateman, David Darton, Martin Evans, Ceri Gott, Theo Joloza, Fraser Macleod, Giovanni Razzu, Emma Samman, Polly Vizard, Gerry Zarb, and to participants at an expert seminar held at LSE, for their comments and guidance during the development of this work. We are also grateful to the interviewees who gave up their time to participate in the research, and to the Government Equalities Office, who funded the research. Responsibility for the views expressed and any errors of fact or judgement remain the authors’ alone.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Centre for Analysis of Social Exclusion, London School of Economics, Houghton Street, London, WC2A 2AE, UK

    Tania Burchardt & Holly Holder

Authors
  1. Tania Burchardt
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  2. Holly Holder
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Corresponding author

Correspondence to Holly Holder.

Appendix: Interview Questions

Appendix: Interview Questions

These questions have been adapted from or influenced by the following surveys and authors: British Crime Survey (2006), Chirkov (2007), English Longitudinal Study of Ageing (2004), Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (2008), National Patients’ Survey Programme (2007), Ryff (1989) cited in Alkire (2005), and the Survey of Young People in Scotland (2003). Note that the questions evolved slightly during the course of the interviews. This is the final version.

  1. 1.

    (Participants are given a picture of a ladder labelled from 1 to 10 on each step).

    Some people feel that they have completely free choice and control over their lives, while other people feel that what they do has no real effect on what happens to them. Imagine a ten step ladder, where on the bottom, the first step, stand people who are completely without free choice and control over they way their lives turn out, and on the highest step, the tenth, stand those with the most free choice and control.

    1. a.

      On which step are you today?

    2. b.

      On what step do you think you will be on in 5 years’ time?

    3. c.

      What about choice and control over [insert domain]? And in 5 years’ time?

      • Domains:

        • Major household expenses (and by this we mean bills or buying large household appliances such as a fridge)

        • Your work/life balance

        • Your ability to form and maintain relationships (and by relationships we mean boyfriends, girlfriends, partners, husbands or wives)

        • Your health

        • Your personal safety

        • Your employment

        • Your opportunities for learning

        • Where you live

        • Your housing

        • Your family life

        • Your religion or belief or choice not to have a religion or belief

        • Your social life

  2. 2.

    Thinking about your life in general, to what extent do you agree or disagree with the following statements?

    (Responses from: strongly agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree, strongly disagree).

    1. a.

      I tend to be influenced by people with strong opinions.

    2. b.

      I judge myself by what I think is important, not by what others think is important.

    3. c.

      My life has shaped itself without me making choices

    4. d.

      I have a clear idea of how I want to lead my life

    5. e.

      Sometimes I feel that I am being pushed around in life.

    6. f.

      I feel like I am free to decide for myself how to live my life.

    7. g.

      There’s really no way I can solve some of the problems I have.

    8. h.

      I feel free to plan for the future.

    9. i.

      I feel that life is full of opportunities.

    10. j.

      There is no point trying to improve my life, there’s nothing that can be done.

    11. k.

      For me, life has been a continuous process of learning, changing, and growth

    12. l.

      I gave up trying to make big improvements or changes in my life a long time ago.

    13. m.

      I have little control over things that happen to me

  3. 3.

    [ROUTE: If strongly agree or agree with Q2 point 5] You stated that you sometimes feel that you are being pushed around in life.

    Could you tell us who or what this is by? Select as many as appropriate.

    1. a.

      My partner

    2. b.

      My children

    3. c.

      Other family members (including parents and in-laws)

    4. d.

      Friends

    5. e.

      My employer

    6. f.

      Other people at work

    7. g.

      A professional e.g. advisor or carer

    8. h.

      The government

    9. i.

      The community I am a part of

    10. j.

      The media

    11. k.

      Circumstances in general

    12. l.

      I am not sure

    13. m.

      Other, please specify.

  4. 4.

    Can you rank the two most important or influential individuals or groups from the previous list?

  5. 5.

    Here are a list of statements that people have used to describe their lives or how they feel. Please tell me on the following scale how often this describes your life or how you feel?

    (Responses from: Always or nearly always, often, sometimes, rarely, never or almost never)

    1. a.

      Lack of support prevents me from doing things that are important to me

    2. b.

      Lack of advice prevents me from doing things that are important to me

    3. c.

      My age prevents me from doing things that are important to me

    4. d.

      Family responsibilities prevent me from doing things that are important to me

    5. e.

      My health prevents me from doing things that are important to me

    6. f.

      Shortage of money prevents me from doing things that are important to me

    7. g.

      Being in debt prevents me from doing things that are important to me

    8. h.

      (Routed) My job/lack of job prevents me from doing things that are important to me

    9. i.

      Other people’s attitudes prevent me from doing things that are important to me

    10. j.

      Where I live prevents me from doing things that are important to me

    11. k.

      Discrimination towards me prevents me from doing things that are important to me

    12. l.

      Lack of transport prevents me from doing things that are important to me

    13. m.

      A community I am a part of prevents me from doing things that are important to me

    14. n.

      Lack of self-confidence prevents me from doing things that are important to me

    15. o.

      Someone else prevents me from doing things that are important to me

    16. p.

      Pressure from others prevents me from doing things that are important to me

    17. q.

      Disapproval from others prevents me from doing things that are important to me

    18. r.

      I am able to do the things that are important to me

  1. 6.

    Could you please rank the two most important or influential statements from the previous list?

    • (Decision-making)

  1. 7.

    People often have several reasons for doing something. I am now going to ask you why you do certain activities. For example, it might be because of outside circumstances, to obtain a benefit or avoid blame, or to please others, or because you truly want to. There is no right or wrong answer, and often you may have several reasons for acting as you do.

    I am now going to describe possible reasons why you take decisions regarding major household expenses, such as paying bills or buying large household appliances such as a fridge.

    (Responses from: not at all true, not very true, somewhat true, completely true)

  1. a.

    I do not make choices with regard to major household expenses; there are no choices to make.

  2. b.

    I make major household expenses according to what my spouse or someone else insists on.

  3. c.

    I make major household expenses that other people expect and so they will approve of me. If I did not, I would feel guilty.

  4. d.

    I make major household expenses in line with what I personally believe is important and valuable.

  5. e.

    I make major household expenses in harmony with my most profound values.

  1. 8.

    I am now going to describe possible reasons why you take decisions regarding your work/life balance.

  1. a.

    I do not make choices with regard to my work/life balance; there are no choices to make.

  2. b.

    I make decisions about my work/life balance according to what my spouse or someone else insists on.

  3. c.

    I make decisions about my work/life balance that other people expect and so they will approve of me. If I did not, I would feel guilty.

  4. d.

    I make decisions about my work/life balance in line with what I personally believe is important and valuable.

  5. e.

    I make decisions about my work/life balance in harmony with my most profound values.

  1. 9.

    I am now going to describe possible reasons why you take decisions regarding relationships (and by relationships we mean boyfriends, girlfriends, partners, husbands or wives).

  1. a.

    I do not make choices with regard to relationships; there are no choices to make.

  2. b.

    I make decisions about relationships according to what someone else insists on.

  3. c.

    I make decisions about relationships that other people expect and so they will approve of me. If I did not, I would feel guilty.

  4. d.

    I make decisions about relationships in line with what I personally believe is important and valuable.

  5. e.

    I make decisions about relationships in harmony with my most profound values.

  • (Everyday household decision-making)

  1. 10.

    In this next section, I will be asking some questions about your everyday life.

    Firstly, I will ask about decisions regarding major household expenses. These types of expenses include bills or buying large household appliances such as a fridge.

    Thinking about the major household expenses that you have, would you say the situation is:

  1. a.

    So good, could not be better.

  2. b.

    Very good.

  3. c.

    Good.

  4. d.

    Alright.

  5. e.

    Bad.

  6. f.

    Very bad.

  7. g.

    So bad, it could not be worse.

  8. h.

    Don’t know.

  9. i.

    Prefer not to answer.

  1. 11.

    When decisions are made regarding major household expenses, who is it that normally takes the decision?

  1. a.

    Me

  2. b.

    My partner

  3. c.

    Me and my partner jointly

  4. d.

    Someone else—family or friend

  5. e.

    Jointly with someone else—family or friend

  6. f.

    Someone else—a professional e.g. carer or advisor

  7. g.

    Jointly with someone else—a professional e.g. carer or advisor

  1. 12.

    [ROUTE: if not a in Q11] Do you feel your views have equal weight when making an important decision about major household expenses?

    (Responses from: nearly always, often, sometimes, rarely, almost never)

  1. 13.

    [ROUTE: if not a in Q10] How important would it be for you to see an improvement in this aspect of your life?

  1. a.

    Very important

  2. b.

    Slightly important

  3. c.

    Neither important or not important

  4. d.

    Not very important

  5. e.

    Not important at all

  6. f.

    [Not sure] spontaneous only

  1. 14.

    [ROUTE: if d—h in Q10, and/or a-b in Q13] I will now read out a list of statements.

    Please tell me on the following scale how much you agree or disagree with whether these statements explain what prevents you from improving your situation.

    (Responses from: strongly agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree, strongly disagree).

  1. a.

    I do not know how to improve the situation.

  2. b.

    I do not have the support I need to improve the situation.

  3. c.

    I cannot get the advice I need to improve the situation.

  4. d.

    This is the only option available to me.

  5. f.

    I do not have a good range and quality of options available to me.

  6. e.

    Having considered my options, this is the best situation possible.

  7. g.

    Someone else prevents me from improving my situation

  8. h.

    Pressure from others prevents me from improving my situation

  9. i.

    To prevent others from disapproving of me.

  10. j.

    My age prevents me from improving my situation.

  11. k.

    Family responsibilities prevent me from improving my situation.

  12. l.

    My health prevents me from improving my situation.

  13. m.

    Shortage of money prevents me from improving my situation.

  14. n.

    Being in debt prevents me from improving my situation.

  15. o.

    (Routed) My job/lack of job prevents me from improving my situation.

  16. p.

    Other people’s attitudes prevent me from improving my situation.

  17. q.

    Where I live prevent me from improving my situation.

  18. r.

    Discrimination towards me prevents me from improving my situation.

  19. s.

    Lack of transport prevents me from improving my situation.

  20. t.

    The community I am a part of prevents me from improving my situation.

  21. u.

    Lack of self confidence prevents me from improving my situation.

  22. v.

    There is no point trying to improve, there’s nothing that can be done.

  23. w.

    I am trying to improve my situation but nothing has happened yet.

  24. x.

    Other things prevent me from improving my situation. Please specify.

  1. 15.

    Could you please rank the two most important or influential statements from the previous list?

  • (Work/life balance)

  1. 16.

    In this next section I will be asking some questions about your work/life balance. By work/life balance we mean the amount of time people are able to spend at work, looking after children or other people, doing household chores, with family and friends or doing leisure activities.

    I am now going to read out some areas of daily life in which you can spend your time. Could you tell me if you spend too much, too little, or just about the right amount of time in each area.

    (Responses from: too much, just right, too little, don’t know, not applicable)

  1. a.

    My job/paid work

  2. b.

    Childcare and other caring activities.

  3. c.

    Social contact (including leisure time with family and/or others)

  4. d.

    Own hobbies/interests

  5. e.

    Sleeping

  6. f.

    Taking part in voluntary activities or political activities.

  1. 17.

    When decisions are made regarding your work/life balance, who is it that normally takes the decisions?

  1. a.

    Me

  2. b.

    My partner

  3. c.

    Me and my partner jointly

  4. d.

    Someone else—family or friend

  5. e.

    Jointly with someone else—family or friend

  6. f.

    Someone else—a professional e.g. carer or advisor

  7. g.

    Jointly with someone else—a professional e.g. carer or advisor

  8. h.

    Employer

  9. i.

    This is not relevant to me.

  1. 18.

    [ROUTE: if not a in Q17] Do you feel your views have equal weight when making an important decision about your work life balance?

    (Responses from: nearly always, often, sometimes, rarely, almost never)

  1. a.

    Very important

  2. b.

    Slightly important

  3. c.

    Neither important or not important

  4. d.

    Not very important

  5. e.

    Not important at all

  6. f.

    [Not sure] spontaneous only

  1. 20.

    [ROUTE: if too much or too little in Q16, and/or a-b in Q19]

    I will now read out a list of statements. Please tell me on the following scale how much you agree or disagree with whether these statements explain what prevents you from improving your situation.

    (Responses from: strongly agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree, strongly disagree).

  1. a.

    I do not know how to improve the situation.

  2. b.

    I do not have the support I need to improve the situation.

  3. c.

    I cannot get the advice I need to improve the situation.

  4. d.

    This is the only option available to me.

  5. e.

    I do not have a good range and quality of options available to me.

  6. f.

    Having considered my options, this is the best situation possible.

  7. g.

    Someone else prevents me from improving my situation.

  8. h.

    Pressure from others prevents me from improving my situation.

  9. i.

    To prevent others from disapproving of me

  10. j.

    My age prevents me from improving my situation.

  11. k.

    Family responsibilities prevent me from improving my situation.

  12. l.

    My health prevents me from improving my situation.

  13. m.

    Shortage of money prevents me from improving my situation.

  14. n.

    Being in debt prevents me from improving my situation.

  15. o.

    (Routed) My job/lack of job prevents me from improving my situation.

  16. p.

    Other people’s attitudes prevent me from improving my situation.

  17. q.

    Where I live prevents me from improving my situation.

  18. r.

    Discrimination towards me prevents me from improving my situation.

  19. s.

    Lack of transport prevents me from improving my situation.

  20. t.

    The community I am a part of prevents me from improving my situation.

  21. u.

    Lack of self confidence prevents me from improving my situation.

  22. v.

    There is no point trying to improve, there’s nothing that can be done.

  23. w.

    I am trying to improve my situation but nothing has happened yet.

  24. x.

    Other things prevent me from improving my situation. Please specify.

  1. 21.

    Could you please rank the two most important or influential statements from the previous list?

  • (Relationships)

  1. 22.

    In this next questions, when I mention relationships, I am referring to boyfriends, girlfriends, partners, husbands or wives—those kinds of relationships.

    Do you feel free to form or maintain a relationship with someone of your choosing without external pressures?

    (Responses from: Nearly always, often, sometimes, rarely, almost never)

  1. 23.

    Would you feel able to leave a relationship you were unhappy with?

  2. 24.

    How important would it be for you to see an improvement in this aspect of your life?

  1. a.

    Very important

  2. b.

    Slightly important

  3. c.

    Neither important or not important

  4. d.

    Not very important

  5. e.

    Not important at all

  6. f.

    [Not sure] spontaneous only

  1. 25.

    [ROUTE: if c-d in Q 22 or 23, and/or a-b in Q24] I will now read out a list of statements. Please tell me on the following scale how much you agree or disagree with whether these statements explain what prevents you from improving your situation.

    (Responses from: strongly agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree, strongly disagree).

  1. a.

    I do not know how to improve the situation.

  2. b.

    I do not have the support I need to improve the situation.

  3. c.

    I cannot get the advice I need to improve the situation.

  4. d.

    This is the only option available to me.

  5. e.

    I do not have a good range and quality of options available to me.

  6. f.

    Having considered my options, this is the best situation possible.

  7. g.

    Someone else prevents me from improving my situation.

  8. h.

    Pressure from others prevents me from improving my situation.

  9. i.

    To prevent others from disapproving of me

  10. j.

    My age prevents me from improving my situation.

  11. k.

    Family responsibilities prevent me from improving my situation.

  12. l.

    My health prevents me from improving my situation.

  13. m.

    Shortage of money prevents me from improving my situation.

  14. n.

    Being in debt prevents me from improving my situation.

  15. o.

    (Routed) My job/lack of job prevents me from improving my situation.

  16. p.

    Other people’s attitudes prevent me from improving my situation.

  17. q.

    Where I live prevents me from improving my situation.

  18. r.

    Discrimination towards me prevents me from improving my situation.

  19. s.

    Lack of transport prevents me from improving my situation.

  20. t.

    The community I am a part of prevents me from improving my situation.

  21. u.

    Lack of self confidence prevents me from improving my situation.

  22. v.

    There is no point trying to improve, there’s nothing that can be done.

  23. w.

    I am trying to improve my situation but nothing has happened yet.

  24. x.

    Other things prevent me from improving my situation. Please specify.

  1. 26.

    Could you please rank the two most important or influential statements from the previous list?

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Burchardt, T., Holder, H. Developing Survey Measures of Inequality of Autonomy in the UK. Soc Indic Res 106, 1–25 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-011-9797-6

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