Abstract
The waste generated from industrial processes and operations including domestic wastes when treated partially and disposed in soil–water environment enter to lakes, streams, rivers, oceans and other water bodies. The pollutants get dissolved or lie suspended in water or get deposited on soil sediment beds. This results on aquatic and terrestrial pollution which ultimately impact ecosystems causing toxicity to biota and human beings. Industries such as petrochemical, pharmaceutical, insecticides and fertilizers generates the hazardous waste comprising of inorganic and organic compounds. Organic compounds mainly composed polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), are one of the toxic environmental pollutant. This paper highlights the physicochemical properties, bioremediation treatment and its mechanism for the waste containing PAH. The process of biological remediation depends upon the metabolic action of microbe toward the contaminant which can be achieved by optimum water and nutrient supply and some other limiting factors. The enzymatic degradation gives the molecular approaches for bioremediation. The study also highlighted the molecular approaches which are helpful in revealing functional, structural and communal information about microbial diversity for exploring the routes of degradation pathway of bioremediation process and future scope to bioremediation of PAHs.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abu Laban N, Selesi D, Rattei T, Tischler P, Meckenstock RU (2010) Identification of enzymes involved in anaerobic benzene degradation by a strictly anaerobic iron-reducing enrichment culture. Environ Microbiol 12:2783–2796
Aitken MD, Stringfellow WT, Nagel RD, Kazunga C, Chen SH (1998) Characteristics of phenanthrene-degrading bacteria isolated from soils contaminated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Can J Microbiol 44:743–752
Alcade M, Bulter T, Arnold FH (2002) Colorimetric assays for biodegradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by fungal laccases. J Biomol Screen 7(6):547–553
Alexander M (1977) Introduction to soil microbiology, 2nd edn. Wiley, NewYork, p 207
Allen CCR, Boyd DR, Hempenstall F, Larkin MJ, Sharma ND (1999) Contrasting effects of nonionic surfactant on the biotransformation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons to cis-dihydrodiols by soil bacteria. Appl Environ Microbiol 65:1335–1339
Amann RI, Ludwig W, Schleifer KH (1995) Identification and in situ detection of individual microbial cells without cultivation. Microbiol Rev 59:143–169
Amatya PL, Hettiaratchi JPA, Joshi RC (2002) Biotreatment of flare pit waste. J Can Petrol Technol 41:30–36
Arun A, Raja PP, Arth R, Ananthi M, Kumar KS, Eyin M (2008) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) biodegradation by Basidiomycetes Fungi, PseudomonasIsolate and their cocultures: comparative in vivo and in silico approach. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 151:13–142
Atagana HI, Haynes RJ, Wallis FM (2003) Optimization of soil physical and chemical conditions for the bioremediation of creosote-contaminated soil. Biodegradation 14:297–307
Baastiaens L, Springael D, Dejonghe W, Wattiau P, Verachtert H, Diels L (2001) A transcriptional luxAB reporter fusion responding to fluorene in 305 Sphingomonas sp. LB126 and its initial characterization for whole-cell bioreporter purposes. Res Microbiol 15:849–859
Baldrian P, Der Wiesche IN, Gabriel J, Nerud F, Zadražil F (2000) Influence of cadmium and mercury on activities of ligninolytic enzymes and degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by Pleurotusostreatusin soil. Appl Environ Microbiol 66(6):2471–2478
Bamforth SM, Manning DAC, Singleton I (2005) Naphthalene transformation by the Pseudomonas at an elevated pH. J Chem Technol Biotechnol 80:723–736. doi:10.1002/jctb.1276
Banerjee DK, Fedorak PM, Hashimoto A, Masliyah JH, Pickard MA, Gray MR (1995) Monitoring the biological treatment of anthracene-contaminated soil in a rotating-drum bioreactor. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 43:521–528
Beam HW, Perry JJ (1973) Co-metabolism as a factor in microbial degradation of cycloparaffinic hydrocarbons. Arch Microbiol 91:87–90
Bergmann F, Selesi D, Weinmaier T, Tischler P, Rattei T, Meckenstock RU (2011) Genomic insights into the metabolic potential of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon degrading sulfate-reducing Deltaproteobacterium N47. Environ Microbiol 13:1125–1137
Bezalel Y, Hadar P, Fu P, Freeman JP, Cerniglia CE (1996) Initial oxidation products in the metabolism of pyrene, anthracene, fluorene, and dibenzothiophene by the white rot fungus Pleurotusostreatus. Appl Environ Microbiol 62(7):2554–2559
Bezalel L, Hadar Y, Cerniglia CE (1997) Enzymatic mechanisms involved in phenanthrene degradation by the white rot fungus Pleurotusostreatus. Appl Environ Microbiol 63:2495–2501
Boldrin B, Andreas T, Fritzche C (1993) Degradation of phenanthrene, fluorene, fluoranthene and pyrene by a Mycobacterium spp. Appl Environ Microbiol 59:1927–1930
Boonchan S (1998) Biodegradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: application of fungal–bacterial cocultures and surfactants. Thesis, Victoria University of Technology, Melbourne Victoria
Boonchan S, Britz FL, Stanley GA (2000) Degradation and mineralization of high-molecular-weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by defined fungal-bacterial cocultures. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66:1007–1019
Børresen MH, Rike AG (2007) Effects of nutrient content, moisture content and salinity on mineralization of hexadecane in an Arctic soil. Cold Regions Sci Technol 48:129–138
Bulter T, Alcalde M, Sieber V, Meinhold P, Schlachtbauer C, Arnold FH (2003) Functional expression of a fungal laccase in Saccharomyces cerevisiae by directed evolution. Appl Environ Microbiol 69:987–995
Bustin SA, Benes V, Nolan T, Pfaffl MW (2005) Quantitative real-time RT-PCR—a perspective. J Mol Endocrinol 34:597–601
Caracciolo AB, Bottoni P, Grenni P (2010) Fluorescence in situ hybridization in soil and water ecosystems: a useful method for studying the effect of xenobiotics on bacterial community structure. Toxicol Environ Chem 92:567–579
Carmichael AB, Wong LL (2001) Protein engineering of Bacillus megaterium CYP102—the oxidation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Eur J Biochem 268:3117–3125
Casillas RP, Crow SA, Heinze TM, Deck J, Cerniglia CE (1996) Initial oxidation and subsequent conjugative metabolites produced during the metabolism of phenanthrene by fungi. J Ind Microbiol 16:205–215
Cerniglia CE (1984) Microbial degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Adv Appl Microbiol 30:31–71
Cerniglia CE (1992) Biodegradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Biodegradation 3:351–368
Cerniglia CE (1997) Fungal metabolism of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: past, present and future applications in bioremediation. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 19:324–333
Cerniglia CE, Heitkamp MA (1989) In: Varanasi U (ed) Metabolism of Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon in Aquatic Environment. CRC Press Inc., Boca Raton FL
Cerniglia CE, Kelly DW, Freeman JP, Miller DW (1986) Microbial metabolism of pyrene. Chem Biol Interact 57:203–216
Chauhan A, Fazlurrahman Oakeshott JG, Jain RK (2008) Bacterial metabolism of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: strategies for bioremediation. J Ind Microbiol 48:95–113
Chen SH, Aitken MD (1999) Salicylate stimulates the degradation of high molecular weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by Pseudomonas saccharophila P15. Environ Sci Technol 33:435–439
Collins PJ, Dobson ADW (1996) Oxidation of fluorene and phenanthrene by Mn(II) dependent peroxidase activity in whole cultures of Trametes (coriolus) versicolor. Biotechnol Lett 18:801–804
Collins JF, Brown JP, Dawson SV, Marty MA (1991) Risk assessment for benzo[a] pyrene. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 13:170–184
Cooper CS, Grover PL, Sims P (1983) The metabolism and activation of benzo(a)pyrene. Progress Drug Metabol 7:295–396
Crameri A, Stemmer WPC (1995) Combinatorial multiple cassette mutagenesis creates all the permutations of mutant and wildtype sequences. Biotechniques 18:194–196
Crameri A, Whitehorn EA, Tate E, Stemmer WPC (1996) Improved green fluorescent protein by molecular evolution using DNA shuffling. Nat Biotechnol 14:315–319
Cunningham CJ, Ivshina IB, Lozinsky VI, Kuyukina MS, Philp JC (2004) Bioremediation of diesel contaminated soil by microorganisms immobilised in polyvinyl alcohol. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad 54(2–3):167–174
Das N, Chandran P (2011) Microbial degradation of petroleum hydrocarbon contaminants: an overview biotechnology research international volume. Article ID 941810. p 13. doi:10.4061/2011/941810
Da-Silva M, Cerniglia CE, Pothuluri JV, Canhos VO, Esposito E (2003) Screening filamentous fungi isolated from estuarine sediments for the ability to oxidise polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 19:399–405
Delmotte N, Knief C, Chaffron S, Innerebner G, Roschitzki B, Schlapbach R, Von Mering C, Vorholt JA (2009) Community proteogenomics reveals insights into the physiology of phyllosphere bacteria. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106:16428–16433
Denome SA, Stanley DC, Olson ES, Young KD (1993) Metabolism of dibenzothiophene and naphthalene in Pseudomonas strains: complete DNA sequence of an upper naphthalene catabolic pathway. J Bacteriol 175:6890–6901
Derz K, Klinner U, Schupan I, Stackebrandt E, Kroppenstedt RM (2005) Mycobacterium pyrenivorans sp. nov., a novel polycyclic-aromatichydrocarbon-degrading species. Int J Syst Evolut Microbiol 54:2313–2317
DeSantis TZ, Brodie EL, Moberg JP, Zubieta IX, Piceno YM, Andersen GL (2007) High-density universal 16S rRNA microarray analysis reveals broader diversity than typical clone library when sampling the environment. Microb Ecol 53:371–383
Díaz MP, Boyd KG, Grigson SJW, Burgess JG (2002) Biodegradation of crude oil across a wide range of salinities by an extremely halotolerant bacterial consortium MPD-M, immobilized onto polypropylene fibers. Biotechnol Bioeng 79(2):145–153
Ding A, Sun Y, Dou J, Cheng L, Jiang L, Zhang D, Zhao X (2013) Characterizing microbial activity and diversity of hydrocarbon-contaminated sites 137-160.http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/50480
Dodor DE, Hwang HM, Ekunwe SIN (2004) Oxidation of anthracene and benzo[a]pyrene by immobilized laccase from Trametesversicolor. Enzyme Microb Technol 35:210–217
Dubey SK, Tripathi AK, Upadhyay SN (2006) Exploration of soil bacterial communities for their potential as bioresource. Bioresour Technol 97(17):2217–2224
Erickson DC, Loehr RC, Neuhauser EF (1993) PAH loss during bioremediation of manufactured gas plant site soil. Water Res 27:911–919
Fan CE, Reinfelder JR (2003) Phenanthrene accumulation kinetics in marine diatoms. Environ Sci Technol 37:3405–3412
Ferris MJ, Ward DM (1997) Seasonal distributions of dominant 16S rRNA-defined populations in a hot spring microbial mat examined by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis. Appl Environ Microbiol 63:1375–1381
Fisher MM, Triplett EW (1999) Automated approach for ribosomal intergenic spacer analysis of microbial diversity and its application to freshwater bacterial communities. Appl Environ Microbiol 65:4630–4636
Freeman WM, Walker SJ, Vrana KE (1999) Quantitative RT-PCR: pitfalls and potential. BioTechniques 26(1):112–122, 1245
Furono S, Pazolt K, Rabe C, Neutr TR, Harm H, Wickly LY (2009) Fungal mycelia allow chemotactic dispersal of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon degrading bacteria in water unsaturated system. Environ Microbiol 12(6):1391–1398
Gentry TJ, Wickham GS, Schadt CW, He Z, Zhou J (2006) Microarray applications in microbial ecology research. Microb Ecol 52:159–175
Gianfreda L, Bollag JM (2002) Isolated enzymes for the transformation and detoxification of organic pollutants. In: Burns RG, Dick RP (eds) Enzymes in the environment: activity, ecology, and applications. Marcel Dekker Inc, New York, pp 495–538
Gianfreda L, Rao MA (2004) Potential of extra cellular enzymes in remediation of polluted soils: a review. Enzyme Microb Technol 35:339–354
Gibson DT, Subranian V (1984) Microbial degradation of aromatic hydrocarbons. In: Gibson DT (ed) Microbial degradation of organic compounds. Marcel Dekker Inc, New York, pp 181–252
Gibson DT, Venkatanarayana D, Jerina M, Yagi H, Yeh H (1975) Oxidation of carcinogens benzo(a)pyrene and benzo(a) anthracene to dihydrodiols by a bacterium. Science 189:295–297
Goyal AK, Zylstra GJ (1997) Genetics of naphthalene and phenanthrene degradation by Comamonas testosteroni. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 19:401–407
Grimm AC, Harwood CS (1997) Chemotaxis of pseudomonas putida to the polyaromatic hydrocarbon napthalene. Appl Envion Microb 63:4111–4115
Guillen MD, Sopelana P, Partearroyo MA (1997) Food as a source of polycyclic aromatic carcinogens. Rev Environ Health 12:133–146
Habe H, Omori T (2003) Genetics of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon degradation by diverse aerobic bacteria. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 67:225–243
Hahn D, Amann RI, Ludwig W, Akkermans ADL, Schleifer KH (1992) Detection of microorganisms in soil after in situ hybridization with rRNA-targeted, fluorescently labeled oligonucleotides. J Gen Microbiol 138:879–887
Hammel KE, Kalyanaraman B, Kirk TK (1986) Oxidation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and dibenzo(p)dioxins by Phanerochaete chrysosporiumligninase. J Biol Chem 261:16948–16952
Hammel KE, Gai WZ, Green B, Moen MA (1992) Oxidative degradation of phenanthrene by the ligninolytic fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium. Appl Environ Microbiol 58:1832–1838
Han M-J, Lee SY (2006) The Escherichia coli proteome: past, present, and future prospects. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 70:362–439
Harayama S (1997) polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon bioremediation design. Curr Opin Biotechnol 8:268–273
Harayama S, Timmis KN (1992) Aerobic biodegradation of aromatic hydrocarbons by bacteria. In: Sigel H, Sigel A (eds) Metal ions in biological systems, vol 28. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp 99–156
Harford-Cross CF, Carmichael AB, Allan FK, England PA, Rouch DA, Wong LL (2000) Protein engineering of cytochrome P450(cam) (CYP101) for the oxidation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Protein Eng 13:1218
Haritash AK, Kaushik CP (2009) Biodegradation aspects of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs): a review. J Hazard Mater 169(1–3):1–15. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.03.137
Harvey RG (1996) Mechanisms of carcinogenesis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Polycycl Aromat Compd 9:1–23
Heitkamp MA, Cerniglia CE (1988) Mineralization of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by a bacterium isolated from sediment below an oil field. Appl Environ Microbiol 54:1612–1614
Heitkamp MA, Cerniglia CE (1989) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon degradation by a Mycobacterium sp. in microcosms containing sediment and water from a pristine ecosystem. Appl Environ Microbiol 55:1968–1973
Heuer H, Krsek M, Baker P, Smalla K, Wellington EMH (1997) Analysis of actinomycete communities by specific amplification of genes encoding 16S rRNA and gel-electrophoretic separation in denaturing gradients. Appl Environ Microbiol 63:3233–3241
Hill GT, Mitkowski NA, Aldrich-Wolfe L, Emele LR, Jurkonie DD, Ficke A, Maldonado-Ramireza S, Lyncha ST, Nelson EB (2000) Methods for assessing the composition and diversity of soil microbial communities. Appl Soil Ecol 15:25–36
Horvath RS (1972) Microbial co-metabolism and the degradation of organic compounds in nature. Bacteriol Rev 36(2):146–155
Jain RK, Kapur M, Labana S, Lal B, Sarma PM, Bhattacharya D, Thakur S (2005) Microbial diversity: application of microorganisms for the biodegradation of xenobiotics. Curr Sci 89(1):101–112
Janke D, Fritsche W (1985) Nature and significance of microbial cometabolism of xenobiotics. J Basic Microbiol 25:603–619
Joyce C (2002) Quantitative RT-PCR. A review of current methodologies. Methods Mol Biol 193(83):92. doi:10.1385/1-59259-283-X:083
Juhasz A, Naidu R (2000) Enrichment and isolation of non-specific aromatic degraders from unique uncontaminated (Plant and Fecal Material) sources and contaminated coils. J Appl Microbiol 89:642–650
Kallimanis A, Frillingos S, Drainas C, Koukkou AI (2007) Taxonomic identification, phenanthrene uptake activity and membrane lipid alterations of the PAH degrading Arthrobacter sp. strain Sphe3. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 76:709–717
Kanaly RA, Harayama S (2000) Biodegradation of high molecular weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by bacteria. J Bacteriol 182(8):2059–2067
Kanaly R, Bartha R, Watanabe K, Harayama S (2000) Rapid mineralisation of benzo(a)pyrene by a microbial consortium growing on diesel fuel. Appl Environ Microbiol 66(10):4205–4211
Kang XP, Jiang T, Li YQ (2010) A duplex real-time RT-PCR assay for detecting H5N1 avian influenza virus and pandemic H1N1 influenza virus. Virol J 7:113. doi:10.1186/1743-422X-7-113
Kapoor M, Lin W (1984) Studies on the induction of aryl hydrocarbon (benzo(a)pyrene) hydroxylase in Neurosporacrassa, and itssuppression by sodium selenite. Xenobiotica 14:903–915
Kastner M, Mahro B (1996) Microbial degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soils affected by the organic matrix of compost. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 44:668–675
Kastner M, Breuer-Jammali M, Mahro B (1998) Impact of inoculation protocol, salinity and pH on the degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and survival of PAH-degrading bacteria introduced into soil. Appl Environ Microbiol 64(1):359–362
Keller M, Hettich R (2009) Environmental proteomics: a paradigm shift in characterizing microbial community. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 73(1):62–70. doi:10.1128/MMBR.00028-08
Kelley I, Freeman JP, Evans FE, Cerniglia CE (1993) Identification of metabolites from the degradation of fluoranthene by Mycobacterium sp. strain PYR-1. Appl Environ Microbiol 59:800–806
Khan AA, Wang RF, Cao WW, Doerge DR, Wennerstrom D, Cerniglia CE (2001) Molecular cloning, nucleotide sequence and expression of genes encoding a polycyclic ring dioxygenase from Mycobacterium sp. strain PYR-1. Appl Environ Microbiol 67:3577–3585
Kim YH, Cho K, Yun SH, Kim JY, Kwon KH, Yoo JS, Kim SI (2006a) Analysis of aromatic catabolic pathways in Pseudomonas putida KT 2440 using a combined proteomic approach: 2DE/MS and cleavable isotope-coded affinity tag analysis. Proteomics 6:1301–1318
Kim SJ, Kweon O, Freeman JP, Jones RC, Adjei MD, Jhoo JW, Edmondson RD, Cerniglia CE (2006b) Molecular cloning and expression of genes encoding a novel dioxygenase involved in low- and high-molecular-weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon degradation in Mycobacterium vanbaalenii PYR-1. Appl Environ Microbiol 72(2):1045–1054
Kirchhof G, Schloter M, Assmus B, Hartmann A (1997) Molecular microbial ecology approaches applied to diazotrophs associated with non-legumes. Soil Biol Biochem 29:853–862
Kiyohara H, Torigoe S, Kaida N, Asaki T, Iida T, Hayashi H, Takizawa N (1994) Cloning and characterization of a chromosomal gene cluster, pah, that encodes the upper pathway for phenanthrene and naphthalene utilization by Pseudomonas putida OUS82. J Bacteriol 176:2439–2443
Koukkou AI, Drainas C (2008) Addressing PAH biodegradation in Greece: biochemical and molecular approaches. IUBMB Life 60(5):275–280
Krivobok S, Kuony S, Meyer C, Louwagie M, Willison JC, Jouanneau Y (2003) Identification of pyrene-induced proteins in Mycobacterium sp. strain 6PY1: evidence for two ring hydroxylating dioxygenase. J Bacteriol 185:3828–3841
Lafortune I, Juteau P, Déziel E, Lépine F, Beaudet R, Villemur R (2009) Bacterial diversity of a consortium degrading high-molecular-weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in a two-liquid phase biosystem. Microb Ecol 57:455–468
Laha S, Tansel B, Ussawarujikulchai A (2009) Surfactant–soil interactions during surfactant amended remediation of contaminated soils by hydrophobic organic compounds: a review. J Environ Manag 90:95–100
Larsson B, Sahlberg G (1982) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in lettuce. Influence of a highway and an aluminium smelter. In: Cooke M, Denis AJ, Fisher GL (eds) Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons: physical and biological chemistry. Battelle Press, Colombus, pp 417–426
Lau KL, Tsang YY, Chiu S (2003) Use of spentmushroom compost to bioremediate PAH-contaminated samples. Chemosphere 52:1539–1546
Launen L, Pinto LJ, Wiebe C, Kiehlmann E, Moore MM (1995) The oxidation of pyrene and benzo[a]pyrene by nonbasidiomycete soil fungi. Canad J Microbiol 41:477–488
Lee HS, Lee K (2001) Bioremediation of diesel-contaminated soil by bacterial cells transported by electrokinetics. J Microbiol Biotechnol 11:1038–1045
Legge R (2012) Analysis of microbial diversity by amplicon pyrosequencing. Dissertations and Theses in Food Science and Technology. Paper 25
Li T, Wu TD, Mazéas L, Toffin L, Guerquin-Kern JL, Leblon G, Bouchez T (2008a) Simultaneous analysis of microbial identity and function using NanoSIMS. Environ Microbiol 10:580–588
Li X, Li P, Lin X, Zhang C, Li Q, Gong Z (2008b) Biodegradation of aged polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) by microbial consortia in soil and slurry phases. J Hazard Mater 150(1):21–26
Liang Y, Gardener D, Miller CD, Chen D, Anderson AJ, Weimer BC, Sims RC (2006) Study of biochemical pathways and enzymes involved in pyrene degradation by Mycobacterium sp. strainKMS KMS. Appl Environ Microbiol 72:7821–7828
Lijinsky W (1991) The formation and occurence of polynucleararo- matic hydrocarbons associated with food. Mutat Res 259:251–262
Liu Y, Zhang J, Zhang Z (2004) Isolation and characterisation of polycyclicaromatic hydrocarbons-degrading Sphingomonas sp. Strain ZL5. Biodegradation 15:205–212
Lopez de Victoria G, Lovell CR (1993) Chemotaxis of azospirillum species to aromatic compounds. Appl Environ Microb 59:2951–2955
Low JYS, Abdullah N, Vikineswary S (2009) Evaluation of support materials for immobilization of Pycnoporus sanguinues mycelia for laccase production and biodegradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Res J Environ Sci 3(3):357–366. ISSN 1819-3412
Majcherczyk A, Johannes C, Huttermann A (1998) Oxidation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) by laccase of Trametesversicolor. Enzyme Microbiol Technol 22:335–341
Mallick S, Chatterjee S, Dutta TK (2007) A novel degradation pathway in the assimilation of phenanthrene by Staphylococcus sp. strain PN/Y via meta-cleavage of 2-hydroxy-1-naphthoic acid: formation of trans-2,3-dioxo-5-(2′-hydroxyphenyl)-pent-4-enoic acid. Microbiology 153:2104–2115
Mapelli V, Olsson L, Nielsen J (2009) Metabolicfootprinting in microbiology: methods and applications in functional genomics and biotechnology. Trends Biotechnol 26:490–497
Margesin R, Schinner F (2001) Biodegradation and bioremediation of hydrocarbons in extreme environments. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 56:650–663
Mastral AM, Callen MS (2000) A review on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) emissions from energy generation. Environ Sci Technol 34:3051–3057
McKenna EJ, Heath RD (1976) Biodegradation of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon pollutants by soil and water microorganisms. University of Illinois (Urbana-Champaign) Research Report no. 113
Mersch-Sundermann V, Mochayedi S, Kevekordes S (1992) Genotoxicity of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Escherichia coli PQ37. Mutat Res 278:1–9
Mester T, Tien M (2000) Oxidation mechanism of ligninolytic enzymes involved in the degradation of environmental pollutants. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad 46:51–59
Miyata N, Iwahori K, Foght JM, Gray MR (2004) Saturable, energy dependent uptake of phenanthrene in aqueous phase by Mycobacterium sp. strain RJGII-135. Appl Environ Microbiol 70(1):363–369
Molina MC, González N, Bautista LF, Sanz R, Simarro R, Sánchez I, Sanz JL (2009) Isolation and genetic identification of PAH degrading bacteria from a microbial consortium. Biodegradation 20:789–800
Moody J, Freeman J, Doerge D, Cerniglia C (2001) Degradation of phenanthrene and anthracene by cell suspensions of Mycobacterium sp. PYR-1. Appl Environ Microbiol 67(4):1476–1483
Moran MA (2009) Metatranscriptomics: eavesdropping on complex microbial communities. Microbe 4:329–335
Mori T, Kitano S, Kondo R (2003) Biodegradation of chloronaphthalenes and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by the white-rot fungus Phlebialindtneri. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 61(4):380–383
Mueller JG, Lantz SE, Blattmann BO, Chapman PJ (1991) Bench-scale evaluation of alternative biological treatment process for the remediation of pentachlorophenol and creosote contaminated materials: solid phase bioremediation. Environ Sci Technol 25:1045–1055
Musat F, Galushko A, Jacob J, Widdel F, Kube M, Reinhardt R (2009) Anaerobic degradation of naphthalene and 2-methylnaphthalene by strains of marine sulfate-reducing bacteria. Environ Microbiol 11:209–219
Muyzer G, Smalla K (1998) Application of denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) and temperature gradient gel electrophoresis (TGGE) in microbial ecology. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek 73:127–141
Muyzer GE, de Waal EC, Uitterlinden AG (1993) Profiling of complex microbial populations by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis analysis of polymerase chain reaction-amplified genes coding for 16S rRNA. Appl Environ Microbiol 59:695–700. PMID 7683183. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7683183
Nakagaki T, Kobayashi R, Nishiura Y, Ueda T (2004) Obtaining multiple separate food sources: behavioural intelligence in the Physarium plasmodium. Proc R Soc B 271:2305–2310
Nichols NN, Lunde TA, Graden KC, Hallock KA, Kowalchyk CK, Southern RM, Soskin EJ, Ditty JL (2012) Chemotaxis to furan compounds by furan-degrading Pseudomonas strains. Appl Environ Microbiol 78(17):6365. doi:10.1128/AEM.01104-12
Nylund L, Heikkila P, Hameila M, Pyy L, Linnainmaa K, Sorsa M (1992) Genotoxic e€ects and chemical composition of four creosotes. Mutat Res 265:223–236
Ortegocalvo JJ, Marchenko AI, Votobyow AV, Borovick RV (2003) Chemotaxis in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria isolated from coal-tar and oil polluted rhizospheres. FEMS Microb Ecol 44:373–381
Park KS, Sims RC, Dupont R (1990) Transformations of PAHs in soil systems. J Environ Eng (ASCE) 116:32–640
Peltola R (2010) Bioavailability aspects of hydrophobic contaminant degradation in soils. ISSN 1795-7079. ISBN 978-952-10-4683-4
Phillips DH (1983) Fifty years of benzo(a)pyrene. Nature 303:472–486
Pinyakong O, Habe H, Supaka N, Pinpanichkarn P, Juntongjin K, Yoshida T (2000) Identification of novel metabolites in the degradation of phenanthrene by Sphingomonassp. strain P2. FEMS Microbiol Lett 191:115–121
Poretsky RS, Bano N, Buchan A, LeCleir G, Kleikemper J, Pickering M, Pate WM, Moran MA, Hollibaugh JT (2005) Analysis of microbial gene transcripts in environmental samples. Appl Environ Microbiol 71:4121–4126
Pothuluri JV, Freeman JP, Evans FE, Cerniglia CE (1990) Fungal transformation of fluoranthene. Appl Environ Microbiol 56:2974–2983
Pozdnyakova NN (2012) Involvement of the ligninolytic system of white-rot and litter-decomposing fungi in the degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Biotechnol Res Int. Article ID 243217, p 20. doi:10.1155/2012/243217
Prabhu Y, Phale PS (2003) Biodegradation of phenanthrene by Pseudomonas sp. strain PP2: novel metabolic pathway, role of biosurfactant and cell surface hydrophobicity in hydrocarbon assimilation. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 61:342–351
Qiu YL, Sekiguchi Y, Imachi H, Kamagata Y, Tseng IC, Cheng SS, Ohashi A, Harada H (2004) Identification and isolation of anaerobic, syntropic phthalate isomer degrading microbes from methanogenic sludges treating wastewater from terepthalate manufacturing. Appl Environ Microbiol 70:1617–1626
Rahman RNZA, Ghazali FM, Salleh AB, Basri M (2006) Biodegradation of hydrocarbon contamination by immobilized bacterial cells. J Microbiol 44(3):354–359
Rama R, Mougin C, Boyer FD, Kollmann A, Malosse C, Sigoillot JC (1998) Biotransformation of benzo(a)pyrene in bench scale reactor using laccase of Pycnoporus cinnabarinus. Biotechnol Lett 20:1101–1104
Rastogi G, Sani R (2011) Molecular techniques to assess microbial community structure, function, and dynamics in the environment. Microbes Microb Technol Agric Environ Appl. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-7931-5_2
Renner R (1999) EPA to strengthen persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic pollutant controls—mercury first to be targeted. Environ Sci Technol 33:62
Rockne KJ, Strand SE (1998) Biodegradation of bicyclic and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in anaerobic enrichments. Environ Sci Technol 32:2962–2967
Ruggaber TP, Talley JW (2006) Enhancing bioremediation with enzymatic processes: a review. Pract Period Hazard Toxic Radioact Waste Manag 10:73–85
Sack U, Fritsche W (1997) Enhancement of pyrene mineralization in soil by wood-decaying fungi. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 22(1):77–83
Sack U, Gunther T (1993) Metabolism of PAH by fungi and correlation with extracellular enzymatic activities. J. Basic Microbiol. 33:269–277
Salicis F, Krivobok MJS, Benoit-Guyod JL (1999) Biodegradation of fluoranthene by soil fungi. Chemosphere 38:3031–3039
Schloss PD, Handelsman J (2003) Biotechnological prospects from metagenomics. Curr Opin Microbiol 14:303–310
Schneider J, Grosser R, Jayasimhulu K, Xue W, Warshawsky D (1996) Degradation of pyrene, benz[a]anthracene, and benzo[a]pyrene byMycobacterium sp. strain RJGII-135, isolated from a former coal gasificationsite. Appl Environ Microbiol 62:13–19
Schutzendubel A, Majcherczyk A, Johannes C, Huttermann A (1999) Degradation of fluorene, anthracene, phenanthrene, fluoranthene and pyrene lacks connection to the production of extracellular enzymes by Pleurotusostreatus and Bjerkanderaadjusta. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad 43:93–100
Schwieger F, Tebbe CC (1998) A new approach to utilize PCR-single-strand conformation polymorphism for 16S rRNA gene-based microbial community analysis. Appl Environ Microbiol 64:4870–4876
Semple KT, Cain RB, Schmidt S (1999) Biodegradation of aromatic compounds by microalgae. FEMS Microbiol Lett 170:291–300
Semple KT, Morriss WJ, Paton GI (2003) Bioavailability of hydrophobic organic contaminants in soils: fundamental concepts and techniques for analysis. Eur J Soil Sci 54:809–818
Seo JS, Keum YS, Hu Y, Lee SE, Li QX (2006) Phenanthrene degradation in Arthrobacter sp. P1-1: initial 1,2-, 3,4- and 9,10-dioxygenation, and meta- and ortho-cleavages of naphthalene-1,2-diol after its formation from naphthalene-1,2-dicarboxylic acid and hydroxyl naphthoic acids. Chemosphere 65:2388–2394
Seo JS, Keum YS, Hu Y, Lee SE, Li QX (2007) Degradation of phenanthrene by Burkholderia sp. C3: initial 1,2- and 3,4-dioxygenation and meta- and ortho-cleavages of naphthalene-1,2-diol. Biodegradation 18:123–131
Seo J-S, Keum Y-S, Li QX (2009) Bacterial degradation of aromatic compounds. Int J Environ Res Pub Health 6:278–309. doi:10.3390/ijerph6010278
Sharma PM, Bhattacharya D, Krishnan S, Lal B (2004) Degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by a newly discovered enteric bacterium Leclercia adecarboxylata. Appl Environ Microbiol 70(5):3163–3166
Shi Z, Tian L, Zhang Y (2010) Molecular biology approaches for understanding microbial polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) degradation. Acta Ecol Sin 30:292–295
Sims RC, Overcash MR (1983) Fate of polynuclear aromatic compounds (PNAs) in soil-plant systems. Residue Rev 88:1–68
Sinha S, Chattopadhyay P, Pan I, Chatterjee S, Chanda P, Bandyopadhya D, Das K, Sen SK (2009) Microbial transformation of xenobiotics for environmental bioremediation. Afr J Biotechnol 8(22):6016–6027
Smith CJ, Osborn AM (2009) Advantages and limitations of quantitative PCR (Q-PCR)-based approaches in microbial ecology. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 67:6–20
Steffen K, Hatakka A, Hofrichter M (2003) Removal and mineralization of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by litter decomposing basidiomycetous fungi. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 60(1–2):212–217
Stemmer WPC (1994a) DNA shuffling by random fragmentation and reassembly: in vitro recombination for molecular evolution. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91:10747–10751
Stemmer WPC (1994b) Rapid evolution of a protein in vitro by DNA shuffling. Nature 370:389–391
Su D, Li PJ, Frank S, Xiong XZ (2006) Biodegradation of benzo[a]pyrene in soil by Mucor sp. SF06 and Bacillus sp. SB02 co-immobilized on vermiculite. J Environ Sci 18(6):1204–1209
Sutherland JB, Selby AL, Freeman JP, Evans FE, Cerniglia CE (1991) Metabolism of phenanthrene by Phanerochaete chrysosporium. Appl Environ Microbiol 57:3310–3316
Sutherland JB, Fu PP, Yang SK, Vontungeln LS, Casillas RP, Crow SA, Cerniglia CE (1993) Enantiomeric composition of the trans-dihydrodiols produced from phenanthrene by fungi. Appl Environ Microbiol 59:2145–2149
Takata N, Sakata M (2002) Effect of photooxidation on delta C-13 of benzo(a)pyrene and benzo(e)pyrene in the atmosphere. Geochem J 36(3):235–245
Tao X-Q, Lu G-N, Liu J-P, Li T, Yang L-N (2009) Rapid degradation of phenanthrene by using Sphingomonas sp. GY2B immobilized in calcium alginate gel beads. Int J Environ Res Publ Health 6:2470–2480
Thies JE (2007) Soil microbial community analysis using terminal restriction fragment length polymorphisms. Soil Sci Soc Am J 71:579–591
Tomotada I, NaSu M (2001) Current bioremediation practice and perspective. J Biosci Bioeng 92(1):1–8
University of Minnesota Biocatalysis/Biodegradation Database (UMBBD) (2004) University of Minnesota. http://umbbd.ahc.umn.edu
Vanrooij JGM, Bodelierbade MM, Jongeneelen FJ (1993) Estimation of individual dermal and respiratory uptake of polycyclic aromatic-hydrocarbons in 12 coke-oven workers. Brit Jn Ind Med 50:623–632
Varkonyi-Gasic E, Hellens RP (2010) qRT-PCR of small RNAs. Methods Mol Biol 631(109):22. doi:10.1007/978-1-60761-646-7_10
Veeken AHM, Hamelers BVM (1999) Effect of substrate-seed mixing and leachate recirculation on solid state digestion of biowaste. In: Mata-Alvarez J, Tilche A, Cecchi F (eds) Proceedings of the second international symposium on anaerobic digestion of solid wastes. Barcelona 1. Gr_A®Ques 92:15-18: 250–257
Verdin A, Sahraoui AL-H, Durand R (2003) Degradation of benzo(a)pyrene by mitosporic fungi and extracellular oxidative enzymes. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad 53:65–70
Voordouw G (1998) Reverse sample genome probing of microbial community dynamics. ASM News 64:627–633
Vyas B, Sasek V, Matucha M (1994) Degradation of anthracene by selected white rot fungi. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 14(1):65–70
Walter U, Beyer M, Klein J, Rehm HJ (1991) Degradation of pyrene by rhodococcus sp. UW1. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 34:671–676
Wang S, Li X, Liu W, Li P, Kong L, Ren W, Wu H, Tu Y (2012) Degradation of pyrene by immobilized microorganisms in saline-alkaline soil. J Environ Sci 24(9):1662–1669
Wattiau P, Bastiaens L, van Herwijnen R, Daal L, Parsons JR, Renard ME, Springael D, Cornelis GR (2001) Fluorene degradation by Sphingomonas sp. LB126 proceeds through protocatechuic acid: a genetic analysis. Res Microbiol. 52(10):861–872
Weissenfels WD, Beyer M, Klein J, Rehm HJ (1991) Microbial metabolism of fluoranthene: isolation and identification of ring fission products. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 34:528–535
Widdle F, Rabus R (2001) Anaerobic biodegradation of saturated and aromatic hydrocarbons. Curr Opin Biotechnol 12:259–276
Wilmes P, Bond PL (2006) Metaproteomics: studying functional gene expression in microbial ecosystems. Trends Microbiol 14:92–97
Wilmes P, Wexler M, Bond PL (2008) Metaproteomics provides functional insight into activated sludge wastewater treatment. PLoS ONE 12(e1778):1–11
Wilson NG, Bradley G (1996) The effect of immobilization on rhamnolipid production by Pseudomonas fluorescens. J Appl Bacteriol 81(5):525–530
Wilson SC, Jones KC (1993) Bioremediation of soils contaminated with polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs): a review. Environ Pollut 88(229):249
Wong JWC, Lai KM, Wan CK, Ma KK, Fang M (2002) Isolation and optimisation of PAH-degradative bacteria from contaminated soil for PAH bioremediation. Water Air Soil Pollut 139:1–13
Wood TK (2008) Molecular approaches in bioremediation. Curr Opin Biotechnol 19:572–578
Wu Y, Teng Y, Li Z, Liao X, Luo Y (2008a) Potential role of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) oxidation by fungal laccase in the remediation of an aged contaminated soil. Soil Biol Biochem 40:789–796
Wu Y, Luo Y, Zou D, Ni J, Liu W, Teng Y, Li Z (2008b) Bioremediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons contaminated soil with Moilinia sp.: degradation and microbial community analysis. Biodegradation 19:247–257
Wullings BA, van Beuningen AR, Janse JD, Akkermanns ADL (1998) Detection of Ralstoniasolanacearumwhich causes brown rot of potato, by fluorescent in situ hybridization with 23S rRNA-targeted probes. Appl Environ Microbiol 64:4546–4554
Wunder T, Marr J, Kremer S, Sterner O, Anke H (1997) 1- Methoxypyrene and 1,6-dimethoxypyrene: two novel metabolites in fungal metabolism of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Arch Microbiol 167:310–316
Xie S, Liu J, Li L, Qiao C (2009) Biodegradation of malathion by Acinetobacter johnsonii MA19 and optimization of cometabolism substrates. J Environ Sci 21(1):2176–2182
Xu YH, Lu M (2010) Bioremediation of crude oil-contaminated soil: comparison of different biostimulation and bioaugmentation treatments. J Hazard Mater 183(1–3):395–401
Yamazoe A, Yagi O, Oyaizu H (2004) Degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon by a newly isolated dibenzofuran utilizing Janibacter sp strain yy 1. Appl microbial biot 65:211–218
Yuan SY, Wei SH, Chang BV (2000) Biodegradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by a mixed culture. Chemosphere 41:1463–1468
Zhang C, Bennet GN (2005) Biodegradation of xenobiotics by anaerobic bacteria. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 67:600–618
Zhang Y, Zhu YX, Kwon KK, Park JH, Kim SJ (2002) Detection of biodegradation of pyrene by synchronous fluorometry. China Environ Sci 22:289–292
Zhang H, Kallimanis A, Koukkou AI, Drainas C (2004a) Isolation and characterization of novel bacteria degrading polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from polluted Greek soils. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 65:124–131
Zhang W, Wang H, Zhang R, Yu XZ, Qian PY, Wong MH (2004b) Bacterial communities in PAH contaminated soils at an electronic-waste processing center in China. Ecotoxicology 19:96–104
Zhong Y, Luan T, Wang X, Lan C, Tam NF (2007) Influence of growth medium on cometabolic degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by Sphingomonas sp. strain PheB4. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 75(1):175–186
Zhou J (2003) Microarrays for bacterial detection and microbial community analysis. Curr Opin Microbiol 6:288–294
Zhou HW, Wong AHY, Yu RMK, Park YD, Wong YS, Tam NFY (2009) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-induced structural shift of bacterial communities in mangrove sediment. Microb Ecol 58:153–160
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Gupta, S., Pathak, B. & Fulekar, M.H. Molecular approaches for biodegradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon compounds: a review. Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol 14, 241–269 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-014-9353-3
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-014-9353-3