Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Estimating impacts of the US EITC program on domestic violence

  • Published:
Review of Economics of the Household Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Despite the long-identified relationship between poverty and risk for intimate partner violence (IPV) and non-intimate partner domestic violence (DV), there is limited work on the relationship between public anti-poverty programs and the incidence of such violence in the United States. In this study, we examine the effect of state Earned Income Tax Credits (EITC) on reports of lethal IPV and DV, a previously unstudied relationship. We offer a conceptual framework for understanding the potentially countervailing mechanisms by which state EITCs could affect lethal violence. We use a combination of empirical strategies, including new econometric estimators, to causally identify how changes in state EITCs affect the rate of reported IPV and DV, measured as homicide rates per 100,000 population. We find no significant causal effects of state EITC (presence or relative generosity) on lethal IPV or DV at a population level. Our work provides insight into the mechanisms at play, and suggests a role for more targeted policy interventions to mitigate individual effects.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. This language is imperfect in cases such as incidents where the victim of IPV kills the perpetrator of IPV in self-defense, meaning that the IPV perpetrator is actually the homicide victim. Where necessary, we specify that the victim/perpetrator is with respect to IPV or the specific identified homicide.

  2. However, it is also quite likely that short-run stability that keeps victims and abusers in a relationship may yield increased violence in the long run. As our study focuses on the short run, we leave this question to future researchers.

  3. In many cases multiple agencies service the same county (e.g., a county sheriff’s department and a city police department). We choose to focus on the county-level analysis rather than agency-level analysis (clustering at the level of the county) because of data quality concerns in the agency-level data where some agencies do not consistently report. By aggregating to the county, we instead focus on a marginal analysis, assuming orthogonality of reporting bias to our variation of interest.

  4. The corresponding event study graphs using the Callaway and Sant’Anna (2021) and Borusyak et al. (2022) estimation methods are provided in the appendix Figs. 5 and 6.

References

  • Abadie, A., Athey, S., Imbens, G., & Wooldridge, J. When Should You Adjust Standard Errors for Clustering? NBER Working Paper Series 24003 (2017). http://arxiv.org/abs/1710.02926. ArXiv: 1710.02926.

  • Abraham, S., & Sun, L. Estimating Dynamic Treatment Effects in Event Studies With Heterogeneous Treatment Effects. SSRN Electronic Journal (2019). ArXiv: 1804.05785.

  • Agan, A. Y., & Makowsky, M. M. The Minimum Wage, EITC, and Criminal Recidivism. Tech. Rep., National Bureau of Economic Research (2018). ArXiv: 1011.1669v3 Publication Title: NBER Working Paper Series ISBN: 9788578110796 ISSN: 1098-6596.

  • Aizer, A. (2010). The gender wage gap and domestic violence. American Economic Review, 100, 1847–1859.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aizer, A., & Dal Bó, P. (2009). Love, hate and murder: Commitment devices in violent relationships. Journal of Public Economics, 93, 412–428. Publisher: Elsevier B.V.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alon, T., Doepke, M., Olmstead-Rumsey, J., & Tertilt, M. (2020). the impact of Covid-19 on gender equality. Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling, 53, 1689–1699.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderberg, D., Rainer, H., Wadsworth, J., & Wilson, T. (2016). Unemployment and domestic violence: theory and evidence. Economic Journal, 126, 1947–1979.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arenas-Arroyo, E., Fernandez-Kranz, D., & Nollenberger, N. (2021). Intimate partner violence under forced cohabitation and economic stress: Evidence from the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Public Economics, 194, 104350.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Averett, S., & Wang, Y. (2013). The effects of earned income tax credit payment expansion on maternal smoking. Health Economics, 22, 1344–1359.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Averett, S., & Wang, Y. (2018). Effects of higher EITC payments on children’s health, quality of home environment, and noncognitive skills. Public Finance Review, 46, 519–557.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bassuk, E., Dawson, R., & Huntington, N. (2006). Intimate partner violence in extremely poor women: longitudinal patterns and risk markers. Journal of Family Violence, 21, 387–399.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bastian, J., & Lochner, L. (2020). The earned income tax credit and maternal time use: more time working and less time with kids? NBER Working Paper Series, 27717, 1–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bastian, J., & Michelmore, K. (2018). The long-term impact of the earned income tax credit on children’s education and employment outcomes. Journal of Labor Economics, 36, 1127–1163.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bastian, J. E., & Jones, M. R. (2021). Do EITC expansions pay for themselves? Effects on tax revenue and government transfers. Journal of Public Economics, 196, 104355 Publisher: Elsevier B.V.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baughman, R. A. (2005). Evaluating the impact of the earned income tax credit on health insurance coverage. National Tax Journal, 58, 665–684.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baughman, R. A., & Duchovny, N. (2016). State earned income tax credits and the production of child health: insurance coverage, utilization, and health status. National Tax Journal, 69, 103–132.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benson, M. L., & Fox, G. L. Economic distress, community context & intimate violence: An application & extension of social disorganization theory, final report. United States Department of Justice 1–166 (2002). http://ezproxy.neu.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cja&AN=CJA0370040002612&site=ehost-live&scope=site.

  • Benson, M. L., Fox, G. L., DeMaris, A., & Van Wyk, J. (2003). Neighborhood disadvantage, individual economic distress and violence against women in intimate relationships. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 19, 207–235.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Borusyak, K., & Jaravel, X. (2017) Revisiting Event Study Designs. SSRN Electronic Journal, 1–25.

  • Borusyak, K., Jaravel, X., & Spiess, J. Revisiting event study designs: robust and efficient estimation. Tech. Rep. (2022). http://arxiv.org/abs/2108.12419. ArXiv: 2108.12419.

  • Boyd-Swan, C., Herbst, C. M., Ifcher, J., & Zarghamee, H. (2016). The earned income tax credit, mental health, and happiness. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 126, 18–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Browne, A., Miller, B., & Maguin, E. (1999). Prevalence and severity of lifetime physical and sexual victimization among incarcerated women. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 22, 301–322.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Callaway, B. (2021). Callaway and Sant’anna DD estimator. 1–14.

  • Callaway, B., & Sant’Anna, P. H. (2021). Difference-in-Differences with multiple time periods. Journal of Econometrics, 225, 200–230. ArXiv: 1803.09015.

    Article  MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, A. M. (2020). An increasing risk of family violence during the Covid-19 pandemic: Strengthening community collaborations to save lives. Forensic Science International: Reports, 2(2020), 100089.

    Google Scholar 

  • Card, D., & Dahl, G. B. (2011). Family violence and football: The effect of unexpected emotional cues on violent behavior. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 126, 103–143.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carr, J. B., & Packham, A. (2019). SNAP benefits and crime: Evidence from changing disbursement schedules. Review of Economics and Statistics, 101, 310–325.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carr, J. B., & Packham, A. (2020). SNAP Schedules and Domestic Violence. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 40(2), 412–452.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cesur, R., Rodriguez-Planas, N., Roff, J., & Simon, D. (2022). Domestic violence and income: Quasi-experimental evidence from the Earned Income Tax Credit. NBER Working Paper Series, 29930, 1–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen, Z., & Woolley, F. (2001). A Cournot-Nash model of family decision making. Economic Journal, 111, 722–748.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chetty, R., Friedman, John N., & Rockoff, J. (2011) New Evidence on the Long-term Impacts of Tax Credits. Washington, DC: US Internal Revenue Service.

  • Chin, Y. M., & Cunningham, S. (2019). Revisiting the effect of warrantless domestic violence arrest laws on intimate partner homicides. Journal of Public Economics, 179, 104072 Publisher: Elsevier B.V.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chiou, L., & Tucker, C. E. (2020). Social Distancing, Internet Access and Inequality. NBER Working Paper Series, 26982, 1–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, A., & Smith, E. Homicide Trends in the United States, 1980-2008. Annual Rates for 2009 and 2010. Tech. Rep., U.S. Department of Justice Bureau of Justice Statistics (2013). Issue: November ISSN: 00703370.

  • Corman, H., Dave, D. M., & Reichman, N. E. (2014). Effects of welfare reform on women’s crime. International Review of Law and Economics, 40, 1–14. Publisher: Elsevier Inc.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crandall-Hollick, M. L. The Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC): A Brief Legislative History. Tech. Rep., Congressional Research Service (2018). www.crs.gov.

  • Crowne, S. S., Juon, H.-S., Ensminger, M., Burrell, L., McFarlane, E., & Duggan, A. (2011). Concurrent and long-term impact of intimate partner violence on employment stability. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26, 1282–1304.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dahl, G. B., & Lochner, L. (2017). The impact of family income on child achievement: Evidence from the earned income tax credit: Comment. American Economic Review, 107, 623–628.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dahl, M., & Høyland, B. (2012). Peace on quicksand? Challenging the conventional wisdom about economic growth and post-conflict risks. Journal of Peace Research, 49, 423–429.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daly, M., & Wilson, M. (1988). Evolutionary social psychology and family homicide. Science, 242, 519–524.

    Article  ADS  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DeRiviere, L. (2008). Do economists need to rethink their approaches to modeling intimate partner violence? Journal of Economic Issues, 42, 583–606.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Drumble, M. L. A History of the EITC: How It Began and What It Has Become. In Tax Credits for the Working Poor, vol. 119, 5–24 (Cambridge University Press, 2019).

  • Edmonds, A. T., Moe, C. A., Adhia, A., Mooney, S. J., Rivara, F. P., Hill, H. D., & Rowhani-Rahbar, A. (2021). The earned income tax credit and intimate partner violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(13–14), NP12519–NP12541.

  • Eissa, N., & Hoynes, H. W. (2006). Behavioral responses to taxes: lessons from the EITC and labor supply. Tax Policy and the Economy, 20, 73–110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Evans, M. L., Lindauer, M., & Farrell, M. E. (2020). A pandemic within a pandemic — intimate partner violence during Covid-19. New England Journal of Medicine, 383, 2302–2304.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Evans, W. N., & Garthwaite, C. L. (2014). Giving mom a break: The impact of higher EITC payments on maternal health. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 6, 258–290.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fagan, J. A., & Browne, A. (1994). Violence between spouses and intimates. Understanding and preventing violence, volume 3: Social influences, 1, 115–292.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gardner, J., & Osei, B. (2022). Recreational marijuana legalization and admission to the foster-care system. Economic Inquiry, 60, 1311–1334.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson, C. L., Swatt, M. L., & Jolicoeur, J. R. (2001). Assessing the generality of general strain theory: The relationship among occupational stress experienced by male police officers and domestic forms of violence. Journal of Crime and Justice, 24, 29–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman-Bacon, A. (2020). Difference-in-Differences with Variation in Treatment Timing. Working paper, 1–49.

  • Harpur, P., & Douglas, H. (2014). Disability and domestic violence: protecting survivors’ human rights. Griffith Law Review, 23, 405–433.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoynes, H., Miller, D., & Simon, D. (2015). Income, the Earned Income Tax Credit, and Infant Health. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 7, 172–211.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoynes, H. W. The Earned Income Tax Credit, Welfare Reform, and the Employment of Low-Skilled Single Mothers. In Toussaint-Comeau, M., & Meyer, B. D. (eds.) Strategies for Improving Economic Mobility of Workers: Bridging Research and Practice (Upjohn Press, 2009).

  • Hsu, L.-C. (2017). The timing of welfare payments and intimate partner violence. Economic Inquiry, 55, 1017–1031.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Internal Revenue Service. Statistics for Tax Returns with EITC (2020). https://www.eitc.irs.gov/eitc-central/statistics-for-tax-returns-with-eitc/statistics-for-tax-returns-with-eitc.

  • Isaac, E. (2020). Marriage, divorce, and social safety net policy. Southern Economic Journal, 86, 1576–1612.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, J., & Gray, K. A. (2008). Leave or stay?: Battered women’s decision after intimate partner violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23, 1465–1482.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kimerling, R., Alvarez, J., Pavao, J., Mack, K. P., Smith, M. W., & Baumrind, N. (2009). Unemployment among women: examining the relationship of physical and psychological intimate partner violence and posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24, 450–463.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lanier, C., & Maume, M. O. (2009). Intimate partner violence and social isolation across the rural/urban divide. Violence Against Women, 15, 1311–1330.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lenhart, O. (2019). The effects of state-level earned income tax credits on suicides. Health Economics (United Kingdom), 28, 1476–1482.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lenhart, O. Earned Income Tax Credit and crime. Contemporary Economic Policy 1–19 (2020).

  • Lundberg, S., & Pollak, R. Bargaining and distribution in families. In The well-being of children and families: Research and data needs, pp. 314–338 (University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, MI, 2001).

  • Manoli, D., & Turner, N. (2018). Cash-on-hand and college enrollment: evidence from population tax data and the earned income tax credit. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 10, 242–271.

    Google Scholar 

  • Markowitz, S., Komro, K. A., Livingston, M. D., Lenhart, O., & Wagenaar, A. C. (2017). Effects of state-level earned income tax credit laws in the U.S. on maternal health behaviors and infant health outcomes Sara. Social Science and Medicine, 194, 67–75.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Max, W., Rice, D. P., Finkelstein, E., Bardwell, R. A., & Leadbetter, S. (2004). The economic toll of intimate partner violence against women in the United States. Violence and Victims, 19, 259–272.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, B. D. (2010). The effects of the earned income tax credit and recent reforms. Tax Policy and the Economy, 24, 153–180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Michelmore, K. (2018). The earned income tax credit and union formation: The impact of expected spouse earnings. Review of Economics of the Household, 16, 377–406.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, A. R., & Segal, C. (2019). Do female officers improve law enforcement quality? Effects on crime reporting and domestic violence. The Review of Economic Studies, 86, 2220–2247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moe, C. A., Adhia, A., Mooney, S. J., Hill, H. D., Rivara, F. P., & Rowhani-Rahbar, A. (2020). State Earned Income Tax Credit policies and intimate partner homicide in the USA, 1990-2016. Injury prevention : journal of the International Society for Child and Adolescent Injury Prevention, 26, 562–565.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • National Coalition Against Domestic Violence. Statistics (2020). https://ncadv.org/STATISTICS.

  • Neumark, D., & Wascher, W. (2002). State-level estimates of minimum wage effects: New evidence and interpretations from disequilibrium methods. Journal of Human Resources, 37, 35–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Petrosky, E., Blair, J. M., Carter, J., Betz, J., Fowler, K. A., Jack, S. P. D., and Lyons, B. H. Racial and Ethnic Differences in Homicides of Adult Women and the Role of Intimate Partner Violence — United States, 2003–2014. Tech. Rep., Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2017). https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/cme/conted_info.html#weekly. Volume: 66 Issue: 28.

  • Puzone, C. A., Saltzman, L. E., Kresnow, M.-j, Thompson, M. P., & Mercy, J. A. (2000). National trends in intimate partner homicide: United States, 1976-1995. Violence Against Women, 6, 420–426.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Quinn, B. The Nation’s Two Measures of Homicide. Tech. Rep., U.S. Department of Justice Bureau of Justice Statistics, Office of Justice Programs (2014). https://bjs.ojp.gov/content/pub/pdf/ntmh.pdf.

  • Sant’Anna, P. H., & Zhao, J. (2020). Doubly robust difference-in-differences estimators. Journal of Econometrics, 219, 101–122.

    Article  MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

  • Scholz, J. K. (1994). The earned income tax credit: participation, compliance, and antipoverty effectiveness S. National Tax Journal, 47, 63–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwab-Reese, L. M., Peek-Asa, C., & Parker, E. (2016). Associations of financial stressors and physical intimate partner violence perpetration. Injury Epidemiology, 3, 6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40621-016-0069-4. Publisher: Injury Epidemiology.

  • Internal Revenue Service. (2022) Earned Income and Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) Tables. https://www.irs.gov/credits-deductions/individuals/earned-income-tax-credit/earned-income-and-earned-income-tax-credit-eitc-tables.

  • Showalter, K., Yoon, S., & Logan, T. The Employment Trajectories of Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence. Work, Employment and Society 095001702110352 (2021). http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/09500170211035289.

  • Sims, K. M. (2023) Seeking safe harbors: Emergency domestic violence shelters and family violence. Working Paper, 1–61.

  • Strube, M. J., & Barbour, L. S. (1983). The decision to leave an abusive relationship: economic dependence and psychological commitment. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 45, 785.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strully, K. W., Rehkopf, D. H., & Xuan, Z. (2010). Effects of prenatal poverty on infant health: state earned income tax credits and birth weight. American Sociological Review, 75, 534–562. ArXiv: NIHMS150003 ISBN: 6176321972.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan, C. M., Goodman, L. A., Virden, T., Strom, J., & Ramirez, R. (2018). Evaluation of the effects of receiving trauma-informed practices on domestic violence shelter residents. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 88, 563–570.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sun, L., & Abraham, S. (2021). Estimating dynamic treatment effects in event studies with heterogeneous treatment effects. Journal of Econometrics, 225, 175–199.

    Article  MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

  • Swanberg, J. E., Ojha, M. U., & Macke, C. (2012). State employment protection statutes for victims of domestic violence: public policy’s response to domestic violence as an employment matter. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 27, 587–619.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tauchen, H. V., Dryden Witte, A., & Long, S. K. (1991). Domestic violence: a nonrandom affair. International Economic Review, 32, 491–511.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • The Urban Institute. State Earned Income Tax Credits (2020). https://www.urban.org/policy-centers/cross-center-initiatives/state-and-local-finance-initiative/state-and-local-backgrounders/state-earned-income-tax-credits.

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by the Fall competition at UW-Madison and the Kohl Competition at La Follette School of Public Affairs, UW-Madison. Thanks are due to attendees of the 2022 Virtual Crime Economics Workshop for their helpful comments and feedback. The authors thank Licheng Xu for research assistance and the editor and anonymous referees for their constructive and supportive feedback.

Author contributions

All authors conceptualized the project. YW and BW secured internal funding for the project. K.M.S. provided the outcome data, designed the empirical strategy, cleaned the data, and carried out the formal analysis. YW and BW provided data on the treatment variable of interest. K.S. wrote the initial draft. All three authors collaborated on reviewing, editing, and revising the draft.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Josef Korbel School of International Studies, University of Denver, Denver, CO, USA

    Kaitlyn M. Sims

  2. La Follette School of Public Affairs, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA

    Yang Wang

  3. LaFollette School of Public Affairs, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA

    Barbara Wolfe

Authors
  1. Kaitlyn M. Sims
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Yang Wang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Barbara Wolfe
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kaitlyn M. Sims.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Intrest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Appendices

Appendix A: Data appendix

Tables 7, 8 Figure 3, 4

Table 7 Summary of state EITC policy changes by state (1989-2018)
Full size table
Fig. 3
figure 3

Histogram of dependent variable variation (IPV homicides per capita)

Full size image
Fig. 4
figure 4

Histogram of dependent variable variation (DV homicides per capita)

Full size image

Data on state EITC levels (as a percentage of the federal EITC), changes to state EITC policies, and refundability were collected from the National Bureau of Economic Research. Table 8 categorizes states by whether or not the state EITC is tax-refundable. In Table 7, we describe state EITC policies including years of implementation and generosity.

Table 8 Summary of state EITC refundability
Full size table

Appendix B: Event study graphs

Figure 5, 6, 7, 8

Fig. 5
figure 5

Callaway and Sant’Anna (2021) event study graphs of treatment effect of binary EITC presence on IPV/DV homicide, controlling for non-IPV/DV homicide, and county unemployment

Full size image
Fig. 6
figure 6

Callaway and Sant’Anna (2021) event study graphs of treatment effect of refundable EITC presence on IPV/DV homicide

Full size image
Fig. 7
figure 7

Sun and Abraham (2021) event study graphs of treatment effect of binary EITC presence on IPV/DV homicide, controlling for non-IPV/DV homicide, and county unemployment

Full size image
Fig. 8
figure 8

Sun and Abraham (2021) event study graphs of treatment effect of refundable EITC presence on IPV/DV homicide, controlling for non-IPV/DV homicide, and county unemployment

Full size image

Appendix C: Additional results

Table 9, 10

Table 9 OLS TWFE regression of the presence of state EITC ($) on IPV/DV homicide (no control variables)
Full size table
Table 10 OLS TWFE regression of the presence of state EITC ($) on IPV/DV homicide (inverse hyperbolic sine-transformed dependent variables)
Full size table

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Sims, K.M., Wang, Y. & Wolfe, B. Estimating impacts of the US EITC program on domestic violence. Rev Econ Household (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11150-024-09702-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11150-024-09702-z

Keywords

JEL classification

Search

Navigation