Abstract
Theories of writing development and accumulating evidence indicate that handwriting automaticity is related to the development of effective writing skills, and that writing and reading skills are also associated with each other. However, less is known about the nature of these associations and the role of instructional factors in the early years. The present study examines: (1) the influence of handwriting automaticity in the writing and reading performance of Year 1 students, both concurrently and across time; (2) associations between students’ writing and reading performance and writing instruction. The current study involved 154 children enrolled in 24 classrooms from seven government-funded primary schools in Western Australia. Handwriting automaticity and word-reading were assessed at the end of kindergarten (Mage = 70 months, SD = 4.37 months) and a year later at the end of Year 1 (Mage = 82 months, SD = 3.64 months). Child-level measures of writing quality and production as well as teacher-reported measures of writing instruction were added in Year 1. Teachers reported on amount and type of writing instruction (i.e., teaching basic skills and teaching writing processes) and amount of writing practice in their classrooms. Data analyses included multilevel modelling. Handwriting automaticity predicted writing quality and production concurrently and across time after accounting for gender and initial word-reading skills. Handwriting automaticity predicted reading performance across time. Writing and reading performance were associated with amount of writing practice, while teaching planning and revising were positively associated with writing performance. Implications for writing development and writing instruction are discussed.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ahmed, Y., Wagner, R. K., & Lopez, D. (2014). Developmental relations between reading and writing at the word, sentence, and text levels: A latent change score analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology,106(2), 419. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035692.
Alves, R. A., Limpo, T., Fidalgo, R., Carvalhais, L., Pereira, L. Á., & Castro, S. L. (2016). The impact of promoting transcription on early text production: Effects on bursts and pauses, levels of written language, and writing performance. Journal of Educational Psychology,5, 665–679. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000089.
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2015). Average weekly earnings, Australia, May 2015 (cat. no. 6302.0). Retrieved July 2018, from http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/6302.0Main+Features1May%202015?OpenDocument.
Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA). (2012). Guide to understanding ICSEA. Sydney, Australia: ACARA. Retrieved February 2016, from http://www.acara.edu.au/verve/_resources/Guide_to_understanding_ICSEA.pdf.
Australian Curriculum and Assessment Reporting Authority (ACARA). (2018). National assessment program: literacy and numeracy. Retrieved December 2018, from https://reports.acara.edu.au/.
Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., & Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software,67(1), 1–48. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v067.i01.
Bazerman, C., Applebee, A. N., Berninger, V. W., Brandt, D., Graham, S., Matsuda, P., et al. (2017). Taking the long view on writing development. Research in the Teaching of English,51(3), 351–360.
Berninger, V. W. (1999). Coordinating transcription and text generation in working memory during composing: Automatic and constructive processes. Learning Disabilities Quarterly,22, 99–112. https://doi.org/10.2307/1511269.
Berninger, V. W., Abbott, R. D., Abbott, S. P., Graham, S., & Richards, T. (2002). Writing and reading: Connections between language by hand and language by eye. Journal of Learning Disabilities,35(1), 39–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/002221940203500104.
Berninger, V. W., Abbott, R. D., Augsburger, A., & Garcia, N. (2009). Comparison of pen and keyboard transcription modes in children with and without learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly,32(3), 123–141. https://doi.org/10.2307/27740364.
Berninger, V. W., Abbott, R. D., Jones, J., Wolf, B. J., Gould, L., Anderson-Youngstrom, M., et al. (2006). Early development of language by hand: Composing, reading, listening, and speaking connections; three letter-writing modes; and fast mapping in spelling. Developmental Neuropsychology,29(1), 61–92. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326942dn2901_5.
Berninger, V. W., & Rutberg, J. (1992). Relationship of finger function to beginning writing: Application to diagnosis of writing disabilities. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology,34, 198–215. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8749.1992.tb14993.x.
Berninger, V. W., & Swanson, H. L. (1994). Children’s writing: Toward a process theory of the development of skilled writing. In E. Butterfield (Ed.), Children’s writing: Toward a process theory of development of skilled writing (pp. 57–81). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Berninger, V. W., Vaughan, K., Abbott, R., Abbott, S., Brooks, A., Rogan, L. W., et al. (1997). Treatment of handwriting fluency problems in beginning writing: Transfer from handwriting to composition. Journal of Educational Psychology,89, 652–666. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.89.4.652.
Berninger, V. W., & Winn, W. D. (2006). Implications of advancements in brain research and technology for writing development, writing instruction, and educational evolution. In C. MacArthur, S. Graham, & J. Fitzgerald (Eds.), Handbook of writing research (pp. 96–114). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Bingham, G. E., Quinn, M. F., & Gerde, H. K. (2017). Examining early childhood teachers’ writing practices: Associations between pedagogical supports and children’s writing skills. Early Childhood Research Quarterly,39, 35–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2017.01.002.
Christensen, C. A. (2005). The role of orthographic–motor integration in the production of creative and well-structured written text for students in secondary school. Educational Psychology,25, 441–453. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410500042076.
Coker, D. L., Jr., Farley-Ripple, E., Jackson, A. F., Wen, H., MacArthur, C. A., & Jennings, A. S. (2016). Writing instruction in first grade: An observational study. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal,29, 793–832. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-015-9596-6.
Coker, D. L., Jr., Jennings, A. S., Farley-Ripple, E., & MacArthur, C. A. (2018). When the type of practice matters: The relationship between typical writing instruction, student practice, and writing achievement in first grade. Contemporary Educational Psychology,54, 235–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.06.013.
Cordeiro, C., Castro, S. L., & Limpo, T. (2018). Examining potential sources of gender differences in writing: The role of handwriting fluency and self-efficacy beliefs. Written Communication,35(4), 448–473. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741088318788843.
Cutler, L., & Graham, S. (2008). Primary grade writing instruction: A national survey. Journal of Educational Psychology,100, 907–919. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012656.
Dockrell, J. E., Marshall, C. R., & Wyse, D. (2016). Teachers’ reported practices for teaching writing in England. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal,29, 409–434. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-015-9605-9.
Feng, L., Lindner, A., Ji, X. R., & Joshi, R. M. (2017). The roles of handwriting and keyboarding in writing: A meta-analytic review. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal,32, 33–63. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-017-9749-x.
Fitzgerald, J., & Shanahan, T. (2000). Reading and writing relations and their development. Educational Psychologist,35, 39–50. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3501_5.
Gilbert, J., & Graham, S. (2010). Teaching writing to elementary students in grades 4–6: A national survey. The Elementary School Journal,110, 494–518. https://doi.org/10.1086/651193.
Graham, S. (2018). A revised writer(s)-within-community model of writing. Educational Psychologist,53, 258–279. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2018.1481406.
Graham, S. (2019). Changing how writing is taught. Review of Research in Education,43, 277–303. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X18821125.
Graham, S., Berninger, V. W., Abbott, R. D., Abbott, S. P., & Whitaker, D. (1997). Role of mechanics in composing of elementary school students: A new methodological approach. Journal of Educational Psychology,89, 170–182. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.89.1.170.
Graham, S., Bollinger, A., Olson, C. B., D’Aoust, C., MacArthur, C., McCutchen, D., & Olinghouse, N. (2012). Teaching elementary school students to be effective writers: A practice guide. NCEE 2012-4058. What Works Clearinghouse. Retrieved November 2017, from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED533112.pdf.
Graham, S., & Hebert, M. (2011). Writing to read: A meta-analysis of the impact of writing and writing instruction on reading. Harvard Educational Review,81(4), 710–744. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.81.4.t2k0m13756113566.
Graham, S., Hebert, M., Paige Sandbank, M., & Harris, K. R. (2016). Assessing the writing achievement of young struggling writers: Application of generalizability theory. Learning Disability Quarterly,39(2), 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731948714555019.
Graham, S., Liu, K., Bartlett, B., Ng, C., Harris, K. R., Aitken, A., et al. (2017). Reading for writing: A meta-analysis of the impact of reading and reading instruction on writing. Review of Educational Research,88, 243–284. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654317746927.
Graham, S., McKeown, D., Kiuhara, S., & Harris, K. R. (2012b). A meta-analysis of writing instruction for students in the elementary grades. Journal of Educational Psychology,104(4), 879. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029185.
James, K. H., & Engelhardt, L. (2012). The effects of handwriting experience on functional brain development in pre-literate children. Trends in Neuroscience and Education,1(1), 32–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tine.2012.08.001.
Jones, D., & Christensen, C. (1999). Relationship between automaticity in handwriting and students’ ability to generate written text. Journal of Educational Psychology,91, 44–49. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.91.1.44.
Juel, C., Griffith, P. L., & Gough, P. B. (1986). Acquisition of literacy: A longitudinal study of children in first and second grade. Journal of Educational Psychology,78, 243–255. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.78.4.243.
Kent, S. C., & Wanzek, J. (2016). The relationship between component skills and writing quality and production across developmental levels: A meta-analysis of the last 25 years. Review of Educational Research,86(2), 570–601. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315619491.
Kent, S., Wanzek, J., Petscher, Y., Al Otaiba, S., & Kim, Y. S. (2014). Writing fluency and quality in kindergarten and first grade: The role of attention, reading, transcription, and oral language. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal,27, 1163–1188. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-013-9480-1.
Kim, Y. S., Al Otaiba, S., Puranik, C., Folsom, J. S., & Gruelich, L. (2014). The contributions of vocabulary and letter writing automaticity to word reading and spelling for kindergartners. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal,27, 237–253. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-013-9440-9.
Kim, Y. S., Al Otaiba, S., Puranik, C., Sidler, J. F., Greulich, L., & Wagner, R. K. (2011). Componential skills of beginning writing: An exploratory study. Learning and Individual Differences,21, 517–525. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2011.06.004.
Kim, Y. S., Al Otaiba, S., Sidler, J. F., & Greulich, L. (2013). Language, literacy, attentional behaviors, and instructional quality predictors of written composition for first graders. Early Childhood Research Quarterly,28, 461–469. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2013.01.001.
Kim, Y. S., Al Otaiba, S., & Wanzek, J. (2015). Kindergarten predictors of third grade writing. Learning and Individual Differences,37, 27–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2014.11.009.
Kuznetsova, A., Brockhoff, P., & Christensen, R. (2017). lmerTest package: tests in linear mixed effects models. Journal of Statistical Software,82(13), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v082.i13.
Łaszkiewicz, E. (2013). Sample size and structure for multilevel modelling: Monte Carlo investigation for the balanced design. Quantitative Methods in Economics,14(2), 19–28.
Luke, S. G. (2017). Evaluating significance in linear mixed-effects models in R. Behavior Research Methods,49(4), 1494–1502. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-016-0809-y.
Malpique, A. A., Pino-Pasternak, D., & Valcan, D. (2017). Handwriting automaticity and writing instruction in Australian kindergarten: An exploratory study. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal,30, 1789–1812. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-017-9753-1.
McCutchen, D. (2000). Knowledge, processing and working memory: Implications for a theory of writing. Educational Psychologist,35, 13–23. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3501_3.
McMaster, K. L., Du, X., & Pétursdóttir, A. L. (2009). Technical features of curriculum-based measures for beginning writers. Journal of Learning Disabilities,42, 41–60. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219408326212.
McNeish, D., & Stapleton, L. (2016). Modeling clustered data with very few clusters. Multi-variate Behavioral Research,51(4), 495–518. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2016.1167008.
Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory (NREL) (2011). 6 + 1 Trait® Writing. Retrieved February 2016, from http://educationnorthwest.org/traits.
Pelling, N., & Burton, L. (2017). The elements of applied psychological practice in Australia: preparing for the National Psychology Examination. London: Psychology Press.
Pugh, K. R., Mencl, W. E., Jenner, A. R., Katz, L., Frost, S. J., Lee, J. R., et al. (2001). Neurobiological studies of reading and reading disability. Journal of Communication Disorders,34(6), 479–492. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9924(01)00060-0.
Puranik, C., & Al Otaiba, S. (2012). Examining the contribution of handwriting and spelling to written expression in kindergarten children. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal,25, 1523–1546. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-011-9331-x.
Rietdijk, S., van Weijen, D., Janssen, T., van den Bergh, H., & Rijlaarsdam, G. (2018). Teaching writing in primary education: Classroom practice, time, teachers’ beliefs and skills. Journal of Educational Psychology,110(5), 640–663. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000237.
School Curriculum and Standards Authority (SCSA). (2017a). Judging standards in Year 1. Retrieved December 2017, from https://k10outline.scsa.wa.edu.au/media/documents/judgingstandards/year-1/english-v8.1/assessment-pointers/Year_1_English_Judging_Standards_Assessment-Pointers_2017.PDF.
School Curriculum and Standards Authority (SCSA). (2017b). Handwriting guidelines. Retrieved December 2017, from http://ecm.det.wa.edu.au/connect/resolver/view/PDENG001/latest/PDENG001.pdf.
R Core Team (2017). R: a language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical. Retrieved February 2018, from https://www.r-project.org.
Troia, G. A., Harbaugh, A. G., Shankland, R. K., Wolbers, K. A., & Lawrence, A. M. (2013). Relationships between writing motivation, writing activity, and writing performance: Effects of grade, sex, and ability. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal,26(1), 17–44. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-012-9379-2.
Wechsler, D. (2007). Wechsler individual achievement test—second edition, Australian standardised edition (WIAT-II Australian). San Antonio: The Psychological Corporation.
White, K. M. (2013). Associations between teacher–child relationships and children’s writing in kindergarten and first grade. Early Childhood Research Quarterly,28(1), 166–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2012.05.004.
Wollscheid, S., Sjaastad, J., & Tømte, C. (2016). The impact of digital devices vs. Pen (cil) and paper on primary school students’ writing skills—a research review. Computers & Education,95, 19–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2015.12.001.
Acknowledgements
This research was funded by the Australian Research Council through the Discovery Early Career Award Funding Scheme (DECRA 150100731).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Malpique, A.A., Pino-Pasternak, D. & Roberto, M.S. Writing and reading performance in Year 1 Australian classrooms: associations with handwriting automaticity and writing instruction. Read Writ 33, 783–805 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-019-09994-z
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-019-09994-z