Abstract
Recent theories of short-term memory (STM) distinguish between item information, which reflects the temporary activation of long-term representations stored in the language system, and serial-order information, which is encoded in a specific representational system that is independent of the language network. Some studies examining the relationship between reading acquisition and verbal STM for order and item information separately in beginning readers have found that order STM capacity is independently predictive of nonword decoding abilities in first grade, but item STM is not. In this longitudinal study, we first aimed to explore whether this finding also holds for nonword spelling abilities. We also sought to determine whether order STM capacity remains an independent predictor of nonword decoding and spelling abilities in the second year of reading instruction. For this purpose, 70 typically developing children were followed over 3 years, from kindergarten to second grade. In kindergarten, children were administered order and item STM tasks and phonological awareness tasks, in addition to tasks assessing letter name knowledge, vocabulary knowledge, and nonverbal reasoning. In first and second grades, the children’s word and nonword reading and spelling abilities were assessed. The results revealed that order STM capacity was a robust independent predictor of nonword reading and spelling abilities in first and second grade, but was not related to the abilities to read and spell words. The specific role of order STM in the acquisition of the sublexical reading and spelling routes is discussed.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Badian, N. (1993). Phonemic awareness, naming, visual symbol processing, and reading. Reading and Writing, 5(1), 87–100. doi:10.1007/bf01026920.
Badian, N. (1995). Predicting reading ability over the long term: The changing roles of letter naming, phonological awareness and orthographic processing. Annals of Dyslexia, 45(1), 79–96. doi:10.1007/bf02648213.
Binamé, F., & Poncelet, M. (2015). The development of the abilities to acquire novel detailed orthographic representations among second-to sixth-grade French-speaking children. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Bruck, M., Genesee, F., & Caravolas, M. (1997). A cross-linguistic study of early literacy acquisition. In B. A. Blachman (Ed.), Foundations of reading acquisition and dyslexia (pp. 145–162). Mahwah, NJ: Laurence Erlbaum Associates.
Burgess, N., & Hitch, G. J. (1999). Memory for serial order: A network model of the phonological loop and its timing. Psychological Review, 106(3), 551–581.
Caravolas, M. (2004). Spelling development in alphabetic writing systems: A cross-linguistic perspective. European Psychologist, 9(1), 3–14. doi:10.1027/1016-9040.9.1.3.
Caravolas, M., Hulme, C., & Snowling, M. J. (2001). The foundations of spelling ability: Evidence from a 3-year longitudinal study. Journal of Memory and Language, 45(4), 751–774. doi:10.1006/jmla.2000.2785.
Carroll, J. (2004). Letter knowledge precipitates phoneme segmentation, but not phoneme invariance. Journal of Research in Reading, 27(3), 212–225. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9817.2004.00228.x.
Carroll, J., Snowling, M., Hulme, C., & Stevenson, J. (2003). The development of phonological awareness in preschool children. Developmental Psychology, 39(5), 913–923.
Cataldo, S., & Ellis, N. (1988). Interactions in the development of spelling, reading and phonological skills. Journal of Research in Reading, 11(2), 86–109.
Cutler, A., Mehler, J., Norris, D., & Segui, J. (1986). The syllable's differing role in the segmentation of French and English. Journal of Memory and Language, 25(4), 385–400.
de Jong, P. F., & Van der Leij, A. (1999). Specific contributions of phonological abilities to early reading acquisition: Results from a Dutch latent variable longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91(3), 450–476.
Dufva, M., Niemi, P., & Voeten, M. (2001). The role of phonological memory, word recognition, and comprehension skills in reading development: From preschool to grade 2. Reading and Writing, 14(1–2), 91–117. doi:10.1023/a:1008186801932.
Duncan, L. G., Castro, S. L., Defior, S., Seymour, P. H. K., Baillie, S., Leybaert, J., & Serrano, F. (2013). Phonological development in relation to native language and literacy: Variations on a theme in six alphabetic orthographies. Cognition, 127(3), 398–419. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2013.02.009.
Dunn, L. M., & Dunn, L. M. (1981). Peabody picture vocabulary test—Revised: Manual for forms L and M. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
Dunn, L. M., Thériault-Whalen, C. M., & Dunn, L. M. (1993). Echelle de vocabulaire en images Peabody : Adaptation française du Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test. Toronto, Canada: Psychan.
Furnes, B., & Samuelsson, S. (2011). Phonological awareness and rapid automatized naming predicting early development in reading and spelling: Results from a cross-linguistic longitudinal study. Learning and Individual Differences, 21(1), 85–95. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2010.10.005.
Gathercole, S., & Baddeley, A. (1993). Phonological working memory: A critical building block for reading development and vocabulary acquisition? European Journal of Psychology of Education, 8(3), 259–272. doi:10.1007/bf03174081.
Georgiou, G., Torppa, M., Manolitsis, G., Lyytinen, H., & Parrila, R. (2012). Longitudinal predictors of reading and spelling across languages varying in orthographic consistency. Reading and Writing, 25(2), 321–346. doi:10.1007/s11145-010-9271-x.
Gupta, P. (2003). Examining the relationship between word learning, nonword repetition, and immediate serial recall in adults. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Experimental Psychology A, 56(7), 1213–1236. doi:10.1080/02724980343000071.
Hachmann, W., Bogaerts, L., Szmalec, A., Woumans, E., Duyck, W., & Job, R. (2014). Short-term memory for order but not for item information is impaired in developmental dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 64(2), 121–136. doi:10.1007/s11881-013-0089-5.
Hansen, J., & Bowey, J. (1994). Phonological analysis skills, verbal working memory, and reading ability in second-grade children. Child Development, 65(3), 938–950. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1994.tb00794.x.
Hulme, C. (2002). Phoneme awareness is a better predictor of early reading skill than onset-rime awareness. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 82(1), 2–28. doi:10.1006/jecp.2002.2670.
Hulme, C., Maughan, S., & Brown, G. D. A. (1991). Memory for familiar and unfamiliar words: Evidence for a long-term memory contribution to short-term memory span. Journal of Memory and Language, 30(6), 685–701. doi:10.1016/0749-596X(91)90032-F.
Juel, C., Griffith, P. L., & Gough, P. B. (1986). Acquisition of literacy. A longitudinal study of children in first and second grade. Journal of Educational Psychology, 78(4), 243–255. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.78.4.243.
Kirby, J. R., Parrila, R. K., & Pfeiffer, S. L. (2003). Naming speed and phonological awareness as predictors of reading development. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(3), 453–464.
Landerl, K., & Wimmer, H. (2008). Development of word reading fluency and spelling in a consistent orthography: An 8-year follow-up. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(1), 150–161. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.100.1.150.
Leclercq, A.-L., & Majerus, S. (2010). Serial-order short-term memory predicts vocabulary development: Evidence from a longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 46(2), 417–427. doi:10.1037/a0018540.
Lervåg, A., & Hulme, C. (2010). Predicting the growth of early spelling skills: are there heterogeneous developmental trajectories? Scientific Studies of Reading, 14(6), 485–513. doi:10.1080/10888431003623488.
Lété, B., Sprenger-Charolles, L., & Colé, P. (2004). MANULEX: A grade-level lexical database from French elementary-school readers. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36(1), 156–166.
Majerus, S., Poncelet, M., Elsen, B., & Van der Linden, M. (2006a). Exploring the relationship between new word learning and short-term memory for serial order recall, item recall, and item recognition. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 18(6), 848–873. doi:10.1080/09541440500446476.
Majerus, S., Poncelet, M., Greffe, C., & Van der Linden, M. (2006b). Relations between vocabulary development and verbal short-term memory: The relative importance of short-term memory for serial order and item information. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 93(2), 95–119. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2005.07.005.
Majerus, S., Poncelet, M., Van der Linden, M., & Weekes, B. S. (2008). Lexical learning in bilingual adults: The relative importance of short-term memory for serial order and phonological knowledge. Cognition, 107(2), 395–419. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2007.10.003.
Majerus, S., Van der Linden, M., Mulder, L., Meulemans, T., & Peters, F. (2004). Verbal short-term memory reflects the sublexical organization of the phonological language network: Evidence from an incidental phonotactic learning paradigm. Journal of Memory and Language, 51(2), 297–306. doi:10.1016/j.jml.2004.05.002.
Mann, V., & Liberman, I. (1984). Phonological awareness and short term memory. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 17(10), 592–599.
Martinez Perez, T., Majerus, S., Mahot, A., & Poncelet, M. (2012a). Evidence for a specific impairment of serial order short-term memory in dyslexic children. Dyslexia, 18(2), 94–109. doi:10.1002/dys.1438.
Martinez Perez, T., Majerus, S., & Poncelet, M. (2012b). The contribution of short-term memory for serial order to early reading acquisition: Evidence from a longitudinal study. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 111(4), 708–723. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2011.11.007.
Martinez Perez, T., Majerus, S., & Poncelet, M. (2013). Impaired short-term memory for order in adults with dyslexia. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 34, 2211–2223.
Mehler, J., Dommergues., J., Frauenfelder, U., & Segal, J. (1981). The syllables role in speech segmentation. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 20, 298–305.
Muter, V., & Snowling, M. (1998). Concurrent and longitudinal predictors of reading: The role of metalinguistic and short-term memory skills. Reading Research Quarterly, 33(3), 320–337.
Näslund, J., & Schneider, W. (1991). Longitudinal effects of verbal ability, memory capacity, and phonological awareness on reading performance. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 6(4), 375–392. doi:10.1007/bf03172772.
Nithart, C., Demont, E., Majerus, S., Leybaert, J., Poncelet, M., & Metz-Lutz, M.-N. (2009). Reading disabilities in SLI and dyslexia result from distinct phonological impairments. Developmental Neuropsychology, 34(3), 296–311. doi:10.1080/87565640902801841.
Nithart, C., Demont, E., Metz-Lutz, M.-N., Majerus, S., Poncelet, M., & Leybaert, J. (2011). Early contribution of phonological awareness and later influence of phonological memory throughout reading acquisition. Journal of Research in Reading, 34(3), 346–363. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9817.2009.01427.x.
Plaza, M. (2001). The interaction between phonological processing, syntactic awareness and reading: A longitudinal study from Kindergarten to Grade 1. First Language, 21(61), 003–024. doi:10.1177/014272370102106101.
Plaza, M., & Cohen, H. (2003). The interaction between phonological processing, syntactic awareness, and naming speed in the reading and spelling performance of first-grade children. Brain and Cognition, 53(2), 287–292.
Plaza, M., & Cohen, H. (2007). The contribution of phonological awareness and visual attention in early reading and spelling. Dyslexia, 13(1), 67–76. doi:10.1002/dys.330.
Poncelet, M. (1999). Exploration du rôle des composants phonologique et visuel de la mémoire à court terme dans l’apprentissage des procédures de lecture., Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium.
Raven, J. C., Court, J. H., & Raven, J. (1998). Colored progressive matrices. Oxford, England: Oxford Psychologists Press.
Romani, C., Tsouknida, E., & Olson, A. (2014). Encoding order and developmental dyslexia: A family of skills predicting different orthographic components. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 68(1), 99–128. doi:10.1080/17470218.2014.938666.
Romani, C., Ward, J., & Olson, A. (1999). Developmental surface dysgraphia: What is the underlying cognitive impairment? Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Experimental Psychology A, 52(1), 97–128.
Share, D. (2004). Knowing letter names and learning letter sounds: A causal connection. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 88(3), 213–233. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2004.03.005.
Snowling, M., & Hulme, C. (1994). The development of phonological skills. Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences, 346(1315), 21–27.
Treiman, R., & Zukowski, A. (1991). Children’s awareness of syllables, onsets, rimes and phonemes. In S. Brady & D. Shankweiler (Eds.), Phonological processes in literacy (pp. 67–83). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlabaum Associates.
Wagner, R., & Torgesen, J. (1987). The nature of phonological processing and its causal role in the acquisition of reading skills. Psychological Bulletin, 101(2), 192–212.
Walker, I., & Hulme, C. (1999). Concrete words are easier to recall than abstract words: Evidence for a semantic contribution to short-term serial recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 25(5), 1256–1271. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.25.5.1256.
Ziegler, J., & Goswami, U. (2005). Reading acquisition, developmental dyslexia, and skilled reading across languages: A psycholinguistic grain size theory. Psychological Bulletin, 131(1), 3–29. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.131.1.3.
Acknowledgments
The manuscript represents original material that has not been published previously and that is not being considered for publication elsewhere. Both authors substantially contributed to this work and approved the final version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research was supported by the Fund of Scientific Research (FNRS), Belgium.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest in connection with this work.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Binamé, F., Poncelet, M. Order short-term memory capacity predicts nonword reading and spelling in first and second grade. Read Writ 29, 1–20 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-015-9577-9
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-015-9577-9