Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Concerns about body change behaviors, and construction of flexible masculinity among Iranian students

  • Published:
Quality & Quantity Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The present study uses the results of semi-structured interviews with 17 male university students in Kerman, the capital of the largest province of Iran. The objective of the study is to understand the focus on the body and body change behaviors. Physical features constitute one of the core components of masculinity; the focus on the ideal body and the tendency to change the body shape or size can therefore be associated with masculinity. The grounded theory approach was used to analyze the concerns about the body, body change behaviors, and construction of flexible masculinity among Iranian students. Four main themes emerged from the analysis of the interviews: ideal body, body satisfaction and body change behaviors, the role and function of attraction and the ideal body, reasons for the focus on the body. The core theme is emerged from four themes: consumer masculinity–hegemonic masculinity (construction of flexible masculinity). The findings reveal the emergence of a new flexible type of masculinity in Iran. The results of the present study showed that young Iranian men have combined components of traditional Iranian hegemonic masculinity with western hegemonic masculinity and consumer masculinity to describe the ideal body and make efforts to achieve it. Moreover, some elements of traditional hegemonic masculinity were noticed to still persist in the students’ lives. More extensive use of visual media, cultural globalization and the changing social roles are the main causes of the changing type of masculinity in the society and lead to the creation of a new gender system in the society.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Blond, A.: Impacts of exposure to images of ideal bodies on male body dissatisfaction: a review. Body Image 5(3), 244–250 (2008)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burlew, L.D., Shurts, W.M.: Men and body image: current issues and counseling implications. J. Couns. Dev. 91(4), 428–435 (2013)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carroll, H.: Men’s Soaps: Automotive Television Programming and Contemporary Working-Class Masculinities. Sage Publications, New York (2008)

    Google Scholar 

  • Clarkson, J.: Contesting masculinity’s makeover: queer eye, consumer masculinity, and “straight-acting” gays. J. Commun. Inq. 29(3), 235–255 (2005)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohane, G.H., Pope Jr., H.G.: Body image in boys: a review of the literature. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 29(4), 373–379 (2001)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Connell, R.W.: Gender and Power: Society, the Person and Sexual Politics. Polity, Cambridge (1987)

    Google Scholar 

  • Connell, R.W.: The big picture: masculinities in recent world history. Theory Soc. 22(5), 597–623 (1993)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Connell, R.W.: Masculinities: power and social change. University of California Press, Berkeley (1995)

    Google Scholar 

  • Connell, R.W.: Masculinities and globalization. Men Masc. 1(1), 3–23 (1998)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Connell, R.W., Messerschmidt, J.W.: Hegemonic masculinity: rethinking the concept. Gend. Soc. 19(6), 829–859 (2005)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Conseur, A., Hathcote, J., Kim, S.: Consumer masculinity behavior among college students and its relationship to self esteem and media significance. Sex Roles 58(7), 549–555 (2008)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Craig, S.: Considering men and the media. In: Craig, D. (ed.) Men, Masculinity and the Media. Sage Publications, London (1992)

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Darling-Wolf, F.: Women and new men: negotiating masculinity in the Japanese media. Commun. Rev. 7(3), 285–303 (2004)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dragowski, E.A., Scharron-del Rio, M.R.: The importance of challenging hegemonic masculinity in preventing school violence. Sch. Psychol. Forum 8(1), 10–27 (2014)

    Google Scholar 

  • Featherstone, M.: The body in consumer culture. In: Featherstone, M., Hepworth, M., Turner, B. (eds.) The body: Social Process and Cultural Theory, pp. 170–196. Sage Publications, London (1991)

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Feingold, A., Mazzella, R.: Gender differences in body image are increasing. Psychol. Sci. 9(3), 190–195 (1998)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fernández-Álvarez, Ó.: Non-hegemonic masculinity against gender violence. Proc. Soc. Behav. Sci. 161, 48–55 (2014)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fisk, J.: Reading the popular. Unwin Hyman, Boston (1989)

    Google Scholar 

  • Frith, H., Gleeson, K.: Clothing and embodiment: men managing body image and appearance. Psychol. Men Masc. 5(1), 40–48 (2004)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garousi, S., Zahedinejad, M.: Body satisfaction and body management behaviors, in Iranian female students. Int. J. Caring Sci. 7(1), 83–89 (2012)

    Google Scholar 

  • Garrusi, B., Garousi, S., Baneshi, M.R.: Body image and body change: predictive factors in an Iranian population. Int. J. Prev. Med. 4(8), 940–948 (2013)

    Google Scholar 

  • Gee, S.: Bending the codes of masculinity: David Beckham and flexible masculinity in the new millennium. Sport Soc. 17(7), 917–936 (2013)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gill, R.: Culture and subjectivity in neoliberal and postfeminist times. Subjectivity 25, 432–445 (2008a)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gill, R.: Supersexualize Me! Advertising, (Post)feminism and/`the Midriffs/’. Macmillan, Palgrave (2008b)

    Google Scholar 

  • Glaser, B., Strauss, A.: Discovery of Grounded Theory. Transaction Publishers, Rutgers (1967)

    Google Scholar 

  • Grieve, F.G., Truba, N., Bowersox, S.: Etiology, assessment, and treatment of muscle dysmorphia. J. Cognit. Psychother. 23(4), 306–314 (2009)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holt, D.B., Thompson, C.J.: Man-of-action heroes: the pursuit of heroic masculinity in everyday consumption. J. Consum. Res. 31(2), 425–440 (2004)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, T., Chen, H.: Sociocultural influences on body image concerns of young Chinese males. J. Adolesc. Res. 23(2), 154–171 (2008)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kimmel, M.: Reading men: men, masculinity and publishing. Contemp. Sociol. 21(2), 162–171 (1992)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lawrence, L.: Validity, reliability, and generalizability in qualitative research. J. Fam. Med. Prim. Care 4(3), 324–327 (2015)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leit, R.A., Pope, H.G., Gray, J.J.: Cultural expectations of muscularity in men: the evolution of playgirl centerfolds. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 29(1), 90–93 (2001)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCreary, D.R., Sasse, D.K.: Gender differences in high school students’ dieting behavior and their correlates. Int. J. Men’s Health 1(2), 195–213 (2002)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCreary, D.R., Saucier, D.M., Courtenay, W.H.: The drive for muscularity and masculinity: testing the associations among gender-role traits, behaviors, attitudes, and conflict. Psychol. Men Masc. 6(2), 83–94 (2005)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, C., Blissett, J., Oldfield, C.: Sexual orientation and eating psychopathology: the role of masculinity and femininity. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 29(3), 314–318 (2001)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, D.: A Theory of Shopping. Polity, New York (1998)

    Google Scholar 

  • Millington, B., Wilson, B.: Context masculinities: media consumption, physical education, and youth identities. Am. Behav. Sci. 53(11), 1669–1688 (2010)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morse, J.M.: Strategies for sampling. In: Morse, J. (ed.) Qualitative Nursing Research: A Contemporary Dialogue, pp. 117–131. Sage Publications, Newbury Park (1991)

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Morse, J.M., Barrett, M., Mayan, M., Olson, K., Spiers, J.: Verification strategies for establishing reliability and validity in qualitative research. Int. J. Qual. Methods 1(2), 13–22 (2002)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mort, F.: Boy’s own? Masculinity, style and popular culture. In: Chapman, R., Rutherford, J. (eds.) Male Order: Unwrapping Masculinity, pp. 193–224. Lawrence and Wishhart, London (1988)

    Google Scholar 

  • Muris, P., Meesters, C., van de Blom, W., Mayer, B.: Biological, psychological, and sociocultural correlates of body change strategies and eating problems in adolescent boys and girls. Eat. Behav. 6(1), 11–22 (2005)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murray, S.B., Touyz, S.W.: Masculinity, femininity and male body image: a recipe for future research. Int. J. Men’s Health 11(3), 227–239 (2012)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mussap, A.J.: Masculine gender role stress and the pursuit of mascularity. Int J men`s health 7(1), 72–89 (2008)

    Google Scholar 

  • Paechter, C.: Reconceptualizing the gendered body: learning and constructing masculinities and femininities in school. Gender Educ. 18(2), 121–135 (2006)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, M., Elliott, R.: Negotiation masculinities: advertising and the inversion of the male gaze. Mark. cult. 5(3), 231–246 (2002)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patton, M.Q.: Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods, 2nd edn. Sage, Newbury Park (1990)

    Google Scholar 

  • Phillips, N., deMan, A.F.: Weight status and body image satisfaction in adult men and women. N. Am. J. Psychol. 12, 171–183 (2010)

    Google Scholar 

  • Pompper, D.: Masculinities, the metrosexual, and media images: across dimensions of age and ethnicity. Sex Roles 63(9), 682–696 (2010)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pope, H.G., Phillips, K.A., Olivardia, R.: The Adonis Complex: The Secret Crisis of Male Body Image Obsession. Free Press, New York (2000)

    Google Scholar 

  • Pringle, R.: Masculinities, sport, and power: a critical comparison of Gramscian and Foucauldian inspired theoretical tools. J. Sport Soc. Issues 29(3), 256–278 (2005)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pritchard, M.: Disordered eating in undergraduates: does gender role orientation influence men and women the same way? Sex Roles 59(3), 282–289 (2008)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rademacher, M.A., Kelly, C.: “I’m here to do business. I’m not here to play games.” Work, consumption, and masculinity in storage wars. J. Commun. Inq. 40(1), 7–24 (2016)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ricciardelli, R., Clow, K., White, P.: Investigating hegemonic masculinity: portrayals of masculinity in men’s lifestyle magazines. Sex Roles 63(1), 64–78 (2010)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ridgeway, R.T., Tylka, T.L.: College men’s perceptions of ideal body composition and shape. Psychol. Men Masc. 6(3), 209–220 (2005)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robertson, S.: “I’ve been like a coiled spring this last week”: embodied masculinity and health. Sociol. Health Illn. 28, 433–456 (2006)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schippers, M.: Recovering the feminine other: masculinity, femininity, and gender hegemony. Theory Soc. 36(1), 85–102 (2007)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, V., Cockcrofit, K., Hook, D.: The fallible phallus: a discourse analysis of male sexuality in a south african men’s interest magazine. S. Afr. J. Psychol. 38, 136–151 (2008)

    Google Scholar 

  • Seely, A.: Metrosexuals: a gay conception. South. Voice 16(34), 37–55 (2003)

    Google Scholar 

  • Simpson, M.: Here come the mirror men. Independent 15, 22 (1994)

    Google Scholar 

  • Slevin, K.: Disciplining bodies: the aging experiences of older heterosexual and gay men. Generations 32, 36–42 (2008)

    Google Scholar 

  • Smolak, L., Murnen, S.K.: Drive for leanness: assessment and relationship to gender, gender role and objectification. Body Image 5(3), 251–260 (2008)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stice, E., Hayward, C., Cameron, R.P., Killen, J.D., Taylor, C.B.: Body-image and eating disturbances predict onset of depression among female adolescents: a longitudinal study. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 109(3), 438–444 (2000)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strauss, A., Corbin, J.: Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory; Procedures and Techniques. Sage Publishing, Thousand Oaks (1998)

    Google Scholar 

  • Swain, J.: Reflections on patterns of masculinity in school settings. Men and Masc. 8(3), 331–349 (2006)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tan, Y., Shaw, P., Cheng, H., Kim, K.: The construction of masculinity: a cross-cultural analysis of men’s lifestyle magazine advertisements. Sex Roles 69(5–6), 237–249 (2013)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, J.K., Heinberg, L.J., Altabe, M., Tantleff-Dunn, S.: Exacting Beauty: Theory, Assessment, and Treatment of Body Image Disturbance. American Psychological Association, Washington DC (1999)

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Trainer, S.S.: Body image, health, and modernity: women’s perspectives and experiences in the United Arab Emirates. Asia Pac. J. Public Health 22(3), 60S–67S (2010)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Willis, P.: Common Culture: Symbolic Work at Play in the Everyday Cultures of the Young. Open University Press, San Francisco (1990)

    Google Scholar 

  • Xu, X., Mellor, D., Kiehne, M., Ricciardelli, L.A., McCabe, M.P., Xu, Y.: Body dissatisfaction, engagement in body change behaviors and sociocultural influences on body image among Chinese adolescents. Body Image 7(2), 156–164 (2010)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yang, C.F., Gray, P., Pope Jr., H.G.: Male body image in Taiwan versus the West: Yanggang Zhiqi meets the Adonis complex. Am. J. Psychiatry 162(2), 263–269 (2005)

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors sincerely thank Dr. Ahmad Amirkafi for his cooperation and guidance. We would like to thank all the students who participated in the interviews and shared their experiences about their body with us.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Social Science, Faculty of Literature and Humanity, Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman, 22 Bahman Ave, Kerman, Iran

    Saideh Garousi & Rouhollah Khajeh Dolatabad

  2. Neuroscience Research Center, Institute of Neuropharmacology, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Jomhoori Ave, P.O. Box 444, Kerman, Iran

    Behshid Garrusi

Authors
  1. Saideh Garousi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Rouhollah Khajeh Dolatabad
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Behshid Garrusi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Behshid Garrusi.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Garousi, S., Khajeh Dolatabad, R. & Garrusi, B. Concerns about body change behaviors, and construction of flexible masculinity among Iranian students. Qual Quant 51, 2831–2846 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-016-0448-5

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-016-0448-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation