Measuring and comparing World Bank regions’ ‘ease of doing business’ opportunity sets

Abstract

This paper measures and compares the World Bank regions’ opportunity sets to promote ease of doing business for the years 2010 and 2019, as well as the time period 2010–2019. We combine the theoretical framework of Verbunt et al. (2020) and the non-parametric frontier estimation approach as proposed by Van Puyenbroeck and Rogge (2020) to construct and assess (changes in) the regions’ opportunity sets and best practice frontiers. The results reveal considerable differences across World Bank regions in ease of doing business, which decrease over the period of study. By 2019, the regions have grouped into two clusters: the leading high income OECD, Europe and Central Asia, and East Asia and Pacific, and the lagging Middle East and North Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. The results prove to be consistent with the concept of development clustering.

Highlights

• Estimating regions’ opportunity sets and best practice to promote ease of doing business

• Measuring differences in regions’ opportunity sets to promote ease of doing business.

• Advocating a non-parametric frontier approach for constructing opportunity sets.

• Measuring changes in opportunity sets and best practice for period 2010–2019.

• Identify considerable differences in EDB best practice frontiers across regions.

Appendices

Appendix 1: Country EBD composite scores (year 2010)

Country	Region	$\widehat \theta _{m,c}^{EAP}$	$\widehat \theta _{m,c}^{ECA}$	$\widehat \theta _{m,c}^{LAC}$	$\widehat \theta _{m,c}^{MENA}$	$\widehat \theta _{m,c}^{OECD}$	$\widehat \theta _{m,c}^{SA}$	$\widehat \theta _{m,c}^{SSA}$
Brunei Darussalam	East Asia and Pacific	90.91%	104.52%	102.45%	97.19%	84.30%	117.16%	122.02%
Cambodia	East Asia and Pacific	81.97%	90.50%	91.71%	94.11%	75.54%	103.88%	107.46%
China	East Asia and Pacific	86.46%	92.83%	96.59%	95.81%	77.04%	110.31%	111.50%
Fiji	East Asia and Pacific	103.27%	112.45%	113.97%	117.94%	91.35%	132.64%	139.18%
Hong Kong SAR, China	East Asia and Pacific	129.42%	143.20%	145.88%	155.81%	117.93%	169.62%	177.73%
Indonesia	East Asia and Pacific	86.83%	95.73%	96.93%	102.39%	79.94%	114.03%	121.19%
Kiribati	East Asia and Pacific	94.76%	109.04%	107.52%	106.51%	88.03%	122.43%	124.41%
Lao PDR	East Asia and Pacific	72.89%	79.36%	80.04%	80.15%	66.27%	89.59%	92.06%
Malaysia	East Asia and Pacific	115.95%	125.60%	130.76%	141.58%	106.91%	151.89%	161.35%
Marshall Islands	East Asia and Pacific	85.97%	94.40%	93.92%	90.41%	78.06%	107.01%	110.44%
Micronesia, Fed Sts	East Asia and Pacific	81.43%	91.48%	89.00%	86.67%	73.97%	101.81%	105.65%
Mongolia	East Asia and Pacific	90.81%	97.48%	102.07%	102.33%	82.09%	116.95%	118.31%
Palau	East Asia and Pacific	63.27%	66.60%	69.84%	73.04%	56.25%	82.11%	85.62%
Papua New Guinea	East Asia and Pacific	87.71%	98.31%	96.82%	96.93%	80.79%	110.43%	114.29%
Philippines	East Asia and Pacific	87.82%	101.32%	96.39%	94.94%	81.81%	114.06%	116.27%
Samoa	East Asia and Pacific	100.73%	114.77%	110.04%	113.15%	92.99%	126.95%	133.79%
Singapore	East Asia and Pacific	125.68%	144.35%	146.91%	153.95%	120.55%	168.92%	175.20%
Solomon Islands	East Asia and Pacific	84.60%	94.38%	93.26%	91.63%	75.96%	105.55%	109.07%
Taiwan, China	East Asia and Pacific	105.37%	119.57%	117.47%	117.10%	96.62%	137.07%	144.59%
Thailand	East Asia and Pacific	112.33%	123.90%	124.70%	127.37%	102.44%	143.29%	149.71%
Timor-Leste	East Asia and Pacific	32.87%	35.14%	38.54%	38.71%	30.01%	41.08%	40.46%
Tonga	East Asia and Pacific	99.42%	113.69%	111.38%	108.83%	91.16%	126.18%	130.09%
Vanuatu	East Asia and Pacific	95.05%	108.74%	105.99%	105.32%	87.31%	118.27%	124.59%
Vietnam	East Asia and Pacific	90.15%	100.45%	102.21%	104.39%	81.47%	117.89%	123.24%
Albania	Europe and Central Asia	98.30%	102.77%	107.67%	116.81%	87.97%	126.02%	131.98%
Armenia	Europe and Central Asia	97.13%	102.10%	107.48%	105.93%	87.42%	120.80%	128.67%
Azerbaijan	Europe and Central Asia	97.60%	101.81%	108.43%	107.75%	88.25%	121.27%	126.38%
Belarus	Europe and Central Asia	78.89%	85.45%	89.18%	84.39%	70.91%	96.65%	96.14%
Bosnia and Herzegovina	Europe and Central Asia	79.99%	84.52%	89.26%	92.93%	71.03%	105.33%	108.47%
Bulgaria	Europe and Central Asia	110.65%	116.44%	121.19%	131.20%	97.58%	142.59%	148.05%
Croatia	Europe and Central Asia	91.36%	101.71%	101.97%	104.89%	82.49%	117.96%	124.41%
Cyprus	Europe and Central Asia	94.54%	105.60%	105.61%	107.65%	87.08%	125.62%	129.90%
Georgia	Europe and Central Asia	117.29%	126.35%	129.18%	130.00%	103.70%	148.99%	158.66%
Kazakhstan	Europe and Central Asia	59.54%	65.16%	65.57%	63.73%	53.84%	78.47%	77.64%
Kosovo	Europe and Central Asia	86.42%	93.93%	96.42%	102.17%	76.95%	111.59%	113.59%
Kyrgyz Republic	Europe and Central Asia	81.09%	88.10%	89.30%	92.39%	72.83%	106.20%	111.26%
Macedonia, FYR	Europe and Central Asia	98.13%	108.39%	108.51%	111.60%	89.88%	125.81%	131.24%
Moldova	Europe and Central Asia	94.44%	98.84%	106.52%	104.88%	84.46%	117.06%	118.88%
Montenegro	Europe and Central Asia	93.15%	99.07%	103.51%	111.61%	83.75%	121.13%	129.18%
Romania	Europe and Central Asia	101.60%	107.17%	112.34%	120.27%	89.66%	132.97%	136.99%
Russian Federation	Europe and Central Asia	76.65%	85.00%	85.86%	85.71%	69.82%	96.29%	99.45%
Serbia	Europe and Central Asia	87.01%	93.33%	95.79%	100.72%	77.50%	111.41%	118.06%
Tajikistan	Europe and Central Asia	34.69%	38.37%	38.44%	37.91%	32.11%	46.43%	45.03%
Turkey	Europe and Central Asia	101.26%	110.72%	113.40%	115.37%	90.99%	130.51%	136.27%
Ukraine	Europe and Central Asia	42.51%	49.26%	47.53%	46.78%	39.58%	50.70%	53.40%
Uzbekistan	Europe and Central Asia	34.25%	37.62%	38.00%	37.86%	31.59%	45.49%	45.54%
Antigua and Barbuda	Latin America and Caribbean	97.51%	112.22%	105.86%	109.31%	91.01%	124.63%	130.28%
Argentina	Latin America and Caribbean	87.11%	96.22%	99.46%	102.52%	79.10%	114.72%	117.50%
Bahamas, The	Latin America and Caribbean	92.48%	106.10%	103.89%	102.90%	85.80%	122.05%	127.77%
Belize	Latin America and Caribbean	90.35%	103.27%	98.22%	96.47%	81.70%	114.98%	119.95%
Bolivia	Latin America and Caribbean	69.94%	78.90%	78.65%	76.14%	63.57%	89.60%	89.64%
Brazil	Latin America and Caribbean	86.56%	98.78%	94.10%	95.03%	81.66%	110.21%	115.33%
Colombia	Latin America and Caribbean	100.41%	111.26%	110.08%	115.28%	91.63%	127.90%	130.82%
Costa Rica	Latin America and Caribbean	88.15%	98.27%	97.75%	94.80%	80.16%	113.52%	118.99%
Dominica	Latin America and Caribbean	98.84%	110.66%	105.89%	111.25%	89.67%	123.31%	132.59%
Dominican Republic	Latin America and Caribbean	98.97%	110.18%	110.07%	111.56%	88.77%	131.04%	132.98%
Ecuador	Latin America and Caribbean	92.01%	101.63%	101.71%	100.18%	82.89%	116.86%	122.32%
El Salvador	Latin America and Caribbean	93.88%	97.62%	102.82%	106.67%	81.82%	120.05%	126.53%
Grenada	Latin America and Caribbean	95.25%	108.41%	102.34%	107.17%	88.23%	120.29%	125.73%
Guatemala	Latin America and Caribbean	98.94%	106.38%	106.57%	116.59%	87.86%	124.72%	132.02%
Guyana	Latin America and Caribbean	87.81%	94.68%	98.68%	100.41%	79.49%	115.61%	114.93%
Haiti	Latin America and Caribbean	68.68%	77.00%	76.59%	77.45%	62.34%	86.78%	88.14%
Honduras	Latin America and Caribbean	92.64%	102.35%	102.22%	109.88%	82.56%	119.40%	124.90%
Jamaica	Latin America and Caribbean	89.64%	98.94%	97.47%	99.85%	82.61%	111.36%	118.50%
Mexico	Latin America and Caribbean	93.35%	101.72%	103.77%	109.32%	84.36%	123.18%	131.17%
Nicaragua	Latin America and Caribbean	81.09%	91.83%	93.08%	94.44%	73.85%	107.66%	111.38%
Panama	Latin America and Caribbean	99.88%	113.50%	110.07%	114.00%	91.14%	129.60%	138.04%
Paraguay	Latin America and Caribbean	94.62%	106.04%	104.84%	106.65%	86.82%	118.58%	124.29%
Peru	Latin America and Caribbean	108.65%	115.61%	118.40%	126.66%	95.02%	138.56%	145.76%
Puerto Rico US	Latin America and Caribbean	104.54%	113.18%	115.85%	126.40%	94.76%	135.74%	142.62%
St Kitts and Nevis	Latin America and Caribbean	99.37%	113.43%	105.80%	108.80%	91.47%	124.87%	130.80%
St Lucia	Latin America and Caribbean	97.14%	111.74%	105.58%	109.27%	90.02%	121.47%	127.96%
St Vincent & the Grenadines	Latin America and Caribbean	102.15%	118.43%	110.35%	112.92%	94.37%	129.59%	134.57%
Suriname	Latin America and Caribbean	67.10%	76.90%	75.94%	72.11%	61.94%	86.48%	88.89%
Trinidad and Tobago	Latin America and Caribbean	97.19%	106.74%	106.34%	115.35%	88.68%	125.01%	130.31%
Uruguay	Latin America and Caribbean	90.95%	101.52%	97.60%	102.10%	82.45%	114.56%	123.38%
Venezuela, RB	Latin America and Caribbean	53.01%	57.44%	60.07%	59.86%	47.75%	68.49%	67.87%
Algeria	Middle East and North Africa	71.12%	78.52%	78.64%	79.20%	63.83%	92.98%	93.39%
Bahrain	Middle East and North Africa	103.02%	113.94%	115.08%	105.49%	92.27%	131.70%	130.24%
Djibouti	Middle East and North Africa	52.76%	57.25%	58.66%	61.34%	47.63%	70.83%	71.82%
Egypt, Arab Rep	Middle East and North Africa	89.45%	98.73%	97.74%	98.93%	81.48%	112.06%	118.58%
Iran, Islamic Rep	Middle East and North Africa	88.16%	96.74%	97.78%	99.26%	79.63%	112.15%	116.03%
Iraq	Middle East and North Africa	68.55%	77.05%	76.68%	73.53%	62.78%	88.51%	89.60%
Jordan	Middle East and North Africa	77.13%	83.54%	85.05%	85.00%	69.21%	100.20%	101.78%
Kuwait	Middle East and North Africa	95.89%	108.18%	108.72%	102.06%	88.69%	122.29%	124.00%
Lebanon	Middle East and North Africa	92.43%	105.57%	105.30%	103.34%	86.08%	119.87%	126.79%
Morocco	Middle East and North Africa	89.61%	100.20%	98.00%	99.06%	82.16%	115.82%	120.76%
Oman	Middle East and North Africa	102.13%	113.22%	114.78%	104.46%	92.10%	131.06%	130.07%
Qatar	Middle East and North Africa	95.20%	104.79%	106.71%	99.15%	85.66%	121.98%	123.79%
Saudi Arabia	Middle East and North Africa	110.70%	123.31%	123.17%	119.87%	100.49%	141.09%	143.22%
Syrian Arab Republic	Middle East and North Africa	70.51%	77.73%	77.63%	78.39%	63.88%	91.65%	93.16%
Tunisia	Middle East and North Africa	98.04%	107.86%	108.13%	106.77%	88.76%	127.34%	129.42%
United Arab Emirates	Middle East and North Africa	109.99%	121.91%	122.78%	114.21%	98.89%	143.43%	144.65%
West Bank and Gaza	Middle East and North Africa	80.78%	87.90%	90.82%	88.87%	73.73%	103.23%	104.27%
Yemen, Rep	Middle East and North Africa	79.19%	85.43%	87.63%	89.67%	70.30%	101.33%	103.22%
Australia	OECD high income	117.73%	128.56%	132.38%	139.33%	103.27%	154.38%	161.14%
Austria	OECD high income	111.62%	121.93%	126.50%	129.83%	99.77%	147.24%	152.68%
Belgium	OECD high income	103.75%	114.44%	118.27%	119.53%	95.56%	136.23%	137.25%
Canada	OECD high income	114.49%	126.42%	128.65%	136.18%	104.70%	148.36%	155.98%
Chile	OECD high income	105.63%	116.81%	116.93%	117.23%	94.35%	137.02%	137.64%
Czech Republic	OECD high income	98.92%	107.07%	110.39%	114.58%	87.13%	129.99%	136.85%
Denmark	OECD high income	120.42%	136.18%	133.88%	138.97%	106.65%	156.47%	166.59%
Estonia	OECD high income	117.19%	128.68%	128.54%	128.60%	102.96%	152.95%	157.93%
Finland	OECD high income	114.59%	126.62%	128.29%	131.65%	101.69%	151.03%	158.97%
France	OECD high income	103.12%	116.99%	118.07%	119.15%	94.45%	137.30%	142.62%
Germany	OECD high income	114.01%	130.36%	128.07%	134.55%	103.18%	149.54%	155.96%
Greece	OECD high income	92.45%	105.20%	102.07%	101.50%	83.90%	119.89%	124.73%
Hungary	OECD high income	100.22%	108.84%	112.48%	117.47%	89.53%	132.02%	135.51%
Iceland	OECD high income	115.12%	128.94%	132.28%	135.25%	104.22%	151.72%	159.01%
Ireland	OECD high income	119.44%	133.13%	134.40%	143.44%	109.18%	156.83%	165.20%
Israel	OECD high income	107.45%	117.52%	120.39%	131.15%	98.85%	140.70%	148.04%
Italy	OECD high income	96.79%	106.69%	106.44%	107.32%	87.85%	125.79%	128.54%
Japan	OECD high income	110.26%	122.83%	123.42%	129.78%	100.65%	145.09%	153.41%
Korea, Rep	OECD high income	117.88%	133.45%	130.68%	134.70%	105.54%	152.82%	162.06%
Latvia	OECD high income	117.38%	124.30%	130.90%	138.74%	102.00%	153.06%	156.55%
Lithuania	OECD high income	112.68%	120.04%	124.53%	125.25%	98.71%	144.68%	149.94%
Luxembourg	OECD high income	95.11%	107.00%	111.89%	114.09%	87.43%	127.54%	126.77%
Netherlands	OECD high income	105.58%	117.79%	120.41%	122.74%	95.27%	140.84%	145.60%
New Zealand	OECD high income	134.63%	146.03%	149.80%	157.99%	120.29%	171.07%	180.83%
Norway	OECD high income	118.60%	130.64%	131.94%	132.31%	105.44%	153.16%	154.28%
Poland	OECD high income	102.44%	107.32%	111.95%	123.01%	90.35%	132.53%	139.06%
Portugal	OECD high income	100.84%	110.84%	113.18%	115.22%	91.36%	134.49%	135.19%
Slovak Republic	OECD high income	107.23%	112.45%	117.55%	120.18%	94.60%	135.84%	143.70%
Slovenia	OECD high income	91.70%	100.49%	98.80%	104.78%	84.45%	115.65%	120.26%
Spain	OECD high income	99.62%	108.73%	110.57%	114.61%	88.95%	130.88%	136.04%
Sweden	OECD high income	117.87%	133.05%	130.92%	133.05%	105.52%	153.50%	162.63%
Switzerland	OECD high income	112.30%	123.63%	123.80%	128.46%	99.97%	144.04%	150.81%
United Kingdom	OECD high income	123.39%	135.49%	137.55%	150.29%	109.93%	161.64%	172.12%
United States	OECD high income	127.29%	136.55%	141.56%	151.52%	113.52%	165.49%	176.01%
Afghanistan	South Asia	54.93%	61.54%	61.49%	62.60%	51.67%	69.21%	69.51%
Bangladesh	South Asia	68.34%	76.39%	77.13%	78.71%	63.91%	88.67%	89.13%
Bhutan	South Asia	91.02%	103.12%	104.27%	104.30%	83.40%	111.01%	116.51%
India	South Asia	75.30%	81.63%	82.82%	87.35%	66.88%	95.84%	97.92%
Maldives	South Asia	86.92%	97.17%	98.16%	92.13%	79.38%	105.78%	111.52%
Nepal	South Asia	92.29%	101.37%	102.01%	98.80%	82.82%	109.15%	117.90%
Pakistan	South Asia	81.10%	89.23%	87.66%	92.68%	74.41%	101.12%	105.73%
Sri Lanka	South Asia	86.17%	96.21%	93.14%	97.10%	77.17%	107.16%	117.29%
Angola	Sub-Saharan Africa	63.25%	68.66%	68.74%	69.97%	57.27%	77.12%	79.80%
Benin	Sub-Saharan Africa	60.85%	67.14%	65.97%	65.02%	55.05%	76.80%	78.37%
Botswana	Sub-Saharan Africa	97.50%	104.82%	108.18%	109.44%	86.87%	121.84%	126.78%
Burkina Faso	Sub-Saharan Africa	61.35%	69.18%	68.95%	67.12%	54.94%	76.73%	77.70%
Burundi	Sub-Saharan Africa	56.10%	58.83%	61.58%	60.10%	50.54%	69.55%	69.27%
Cabo Verde	Sub-Saharan Africa	84.26%	94.94%	96.58%	98.22%	76.85%	111.94%	110.75%
Cameroon	Sub-Saharan Africa	68.55%	78.28%	73.87%	74.20%	63.77%	86.28%	87.76%
Central African Republic	Sub-Saharan Africa	37.31%	42.85%	41.09%	40.50%	34.96%	47.86%	48.56%
Chad	Sub-Saharan Africa	46.52%	52.38%	51.85%	50.40%	42.82%	58.32%	58.73%
Comoros	Sub-Saharan Africa	74.75%	83.51%	81.31%	80.94%	67.75%	91.28%	94.00%
Congo, Dem Rep	Sub-Saharan Africa	54.33%	60.93%	59.13%	58.58%	49.95%	66.06%	67.51%
Congo, Rep	Sub-Saharan Africa	58.48%	65.20%	64.98%	62.00%	53.18%	72.22%	73.07%
Côte d’Ivoire	Sub-Saharan Africa	62.31%	67.47%	71.35%	72.76%	56.41%	79.79%	78.74%
Equatorial Guinea	Sub-Saharan Africa	74.00%	81.99%	81.98%	83.51%	66.23%	93.05%	92.66%
Eritrea	Sub-Saharan Africa	37.58%	42.01%	41.79%	41.55%	34.50%	45.17%	46.27%
Ethiopia	Sub-Saharan Africa	63.35%	71.30%	72.27%	73.13%	58.62%	81.16%	82.20%
Gabon	Sub-Saharan Africa	71.77%	79.68%	79.23%	78.19%	64.30%	93.43%	93.63%
Gambia, The	Sub-Saharan Africa	74.55%	82.97%	83.26%	82.85%	67.25%	96.78%	95.94%
Ghana	Sub-Saharan Africa	97.58%	103.58%	108.11%	108.55%	87.54%	122.60%	124.63%
Guinea	Sub-Saharan Africa	56.92%	63.61%	64.77%	64.90%	51.57%	74.83%	74.35%
Guinea-Bissau	Sub-Saharan Africa	39.01%	41.23%	41.91%	42.66%	35.63%	47.65%	49.11%
Kenya	Sub-Saharan Africa	91.89%	101.33%	99.55%	102.25%	82.79%	112.74%	119.48%
Lesotho	Sub-Saharan Africa	77.48%	88.36%	88.44%	85.46%	72.13%	96.67%	98.88%
Liberia	Sub-Saharan Africa	66.70%	73.76%	74.43%	73.64%	61.89%	83.18%	85.85%
Madagascar	Sub-Saharan Africa	64.98%	72.86%	73.09%	75.76%	60.06%	85.54%	86.11%
Malawi	Sub-Saharan Africa	72.28%	84.27%	81.12%	78.26%	67.12%	90.36%	93.65%
Mali	Sub-Saharan Africa	65.82%	73.89%	74.19%	75.09%	60.01%	84.19%	86.36%
Mauritania	Sub-Saharan Africa	64.53%	69.85%	72.72%	69.87%	57.62%	80.30%	81.07%
Mauritius	Sub-Saharan Africa	106.92%	122.78%	121.37%	124.18%	101.44%	140.69%	141.29%
Mozambique	Sub-Saharan Africa	77.36%	85.76%	84.93%	87.47%	69.77%	98.25%	100.73%
Namibia	Sub-Saharan Africa	99.51%	109.84%	109.39%	112.83%	88.42%	126.52%	131.28%
Niger	Sub-Saharan Africa	58.72%	63.48%	65.57%	64.00%	52.36%	73.01%	73.25%
Nigeria	Sub-Saharan Africa	67.19%	70.80%	73.32%	76.83%	61.53%	82.46%	88.03%
Rwanda	Sub-Saharan Africa	93.34%	101.05%	104.48%	104.30%	84.55%	116.99%	118.45%
São Tomé and Príncipe	Sub-Saharan Africa	64.82%	73.17%	70.55%	71.44%	59.40%	85.00%	86.09%
Senegal	Sub-Saharan Africa	62.95%	70.11%	69.46%	68.55%	57.78%	83.05%	84.21%
Seychelles	Sub-Saharan Africa	90.78%	101.12%	101.75%	101.51%	81.97%	119.68%	118.54%
Sierra Leone	Sub-Saharan Africa	65.17%	73.21%	71.48%	72.90%	60.61%	81.57%	83.70%
South Africa	Sub-Saharan Africa	106.89%	118.09%	119.42%	127.35%	97.16%	136.06%	142.10%
Sudan	Sub-Saharan Africa	74.78%	80.51%	83.64%	78.84%	67.66%	91.44%	93.07%
Tanzania	Sub-Saharan Africa	83.09%	90.82%	94.78%	96.33%	75.75%	106.75%	106.65%
Togo	Sub-Saharan Africa	56.91%	62.45%	63.80%	63.41%	52.52%	74.89%	75.08%
Uganda	Sub-Saharan Africa	73.65%	83.09%	84.10%	83.02%	68.29%	93.39%	96.05%
Zambia	Sub-Saharan Africa	83.02%	93.28%	93.35%	95.13%	76.32%	106.73%	109.09%
Zimbabwe	Sub-Saharan Africa	66.30%	71.33%	74.75%	76.58%	59.63%	87.32%	88.80%

1. Note: $\widehat \theta _{m,c}^{EAP}$: robust country EDB composite indicator score relative to the best practice frontier of East Asia and Pacific region; $\widehat \theta _{m,c}^{ECA}$: robust country EDB composite indicator score relative to the best practice frontier of Europe and Central Asia region; $\widehat \theta _{m,c}^{LAC}$: robust country EDB composite indicator score relative to the best practice frontier of Latin America and Caribbean region; $\widehat \theta _{m,c}^{MENA}$: robust country EDB composite indicator score relative to the best practice frontier of Middle East and North Africa region; $\widehat \theta _{m,c}^{OECD}$: robust country EDB composite indicator score relative to the best practice frontier of High Income OECD region; $\widehat \theta _{m,c}^{SA}$: robust country EDB composite indicator score relative to the best practice frontier of South Asia region; $\widehat \theta _{m,c}^{SSA}$: robust country EDB composite indicator score relative to the best practice frontier of Sub-Saharan Africa region.

Appendix 2: Country EBD composite scores (year 2019)

Country	Region	$\widehat \theta _{m,c}^{EAP}$	$\widehat \theta _{m,c}^{ECA}$	$\widehat \theta _{m,c}^{LAC}$	$\widehat \theta _{m,c}^{MENA}$	$\widehat \theta _{m,c}^{OECD}$	$\widehat \theta _{m,c}^{SA}$	$\widehat \theta _{m,c}^{SSA}$
Brunei Darussalam	East Asia and Pacific	108.67%	104.20%	121.06%	126.96%	102.46%	129.49%	131.55%
Cambodia	East Asia and Pacific	83.41%	79.39%	92.42%	96.97%	78.36%	98.66%	101.44%
China	East Asia and Pacific	104.15%	102.53%	124.06%	116.22%	98.41%	127.05%	130.76%
Fiji	East Asia and Pacific	84.74%	81.47%	98.09%	94.93%	78.10%	101.32%	104.52%
Hong Kong SAR, China	East Asia and Pacific	117.98%	115.25%	140.95%	134.56%	110.22%	140.59%	147.37%
Indonesia	East Asia and Pacific	93.40%	93.06%	110.76%	108.96%	90.24%	113.51%	120.42%
Kiribati	East Asia and Pacific	73.03%	71.28%	84.67%	80.20%	68.56%	86.96%	88.10%
Lao PDR	East Asia and Pacific	80.85%	77.67%	93.06%	92.01%	75.06%	95.25%	100.39%
Malaysia	East Asia and Pacific	112.26%	111.25%	134.64%	130.83%	108.05%	138.12%	143.40%
Marshall Islands	East Asia and Pacific	79.61%	77.09%	93.33%	87.25%	74.95%	93.27%	98.21%
Micronesia, Fed Sts	East Asia and Pacific	74.53%	71.15%	86.34%	82.10%	68.26%	82.83%	91.28%
Mongolia	East Asia and Pacific	100.25%	96.39%	118.15%	117.74%	95.43%	123.88%	125.81%
Palau	East Asia and Pacific	82.31%	79.31%	97.36%	89.58%	77.00%	97.54%	101.22%
Papua New Guinea	East Asia and Pacific	88.21%	84.74%	101.61%	102.64%	83.66%	104.50%	109.78%
Philippines	East Asia and Pacific	54.76%	54.31%	59.44%	64.33%	52.87%	65.96%	67.00%
Samoa	East Asia and Pacific	92.33%	89.46%	107.61%	99.75%	87.21%	109.94%	114.07%
Singapore	East Asia and Pacific	117.03%	114.84%	141.66%	135.27%	111.56%	146.22%	148.91%
Solomon Islands	East Asia and Pacific	87.65%	85.77%	103.53%	93.74%	82.03%	101.85%	106.77%
Taiwan, China	East Asia and Pacific	109.47%	108.48%	130.64%	120.95%	103.76%	135.05%	138.04%
Thailand	East Asia and Pacific	107.65%	107.83%	128.42%	122.34%	102.70%	130.34%	136.14%
Timor-Leste	East Asia and Pacific	53.75%	51.48%	61.59%	58.66%	50.55%	62.57%	64.77%
Tonga	East Asia and Pacific	92.76%	90.82%	107.35%	106.24%	88.33%	109.67%	114.13%
Vanuatu	East Asia and Pacific	92.43%	87.08%	106.61%	107.26%	86.80%	111.35%	115.13%
Vietnam	East Asia and Pacific	98.71%	97.77%	115.07%	116.94%	94.92%	119.29%	126.76%
Albania	Europe and Central Asia	100.09%	95.66%	116.54%	114.24%	93.62%	116.10%	124.91%
Armenia	Europe and Central Asia	108.90%	103.66%	127.02%	121.87%	100.72%	131.13%	138.45%
Azerbaijan	Europe and Central Asia	111.90%	105.78%	133.80%	129.37%	106.06%	136.90%	139.85%
Belarus	Europe and Central Asia	110.81%	103.98%	127.74%	119.69%	100.36%	130.24%	135.03%
Bosnia and Herzegovina	Europe and Central Asia	92.93%	88.28%	106.89%	105.48%	85.41%	107.14%	113.33%
Bulgaria	Europe and Central Asia	102.98%	98.57%	119.84%	116.09%	95.09%	120.64%	126.57%
Croatia	Europe and Central Asia	104.15%	99.09%	119.98%	115.11%	95.35%	121.98%	127.46%
Cyprus	Europe and Central Asia	98.33%	95.08%	117.01%	113.20%	91.63%	116.25%	122.31%
Georgia	Europe and Central Asia	119.27%	112.35%	142.18%	137.90%	112.14%	145.97%	151.13%
Kazakhstan	Europe and Central Asia	111.24%	105.80%	133.00%	122.99%	106.31%	137.75%	140.09%
Kosovo	Europe and Central Asia	106.35%	100.04%	122.63%	123.04%	100.11%	129.53%	130.75%
Kyrgyz Republic	Europe and Central Asia	99.69%	94.84%	116.80%	112.80%	92.79%	121.31%	125.61%
Macedonia, FYR	Europe and Central Asia	113.83%	108.80%	135.07%	134.75%	108.41%	137.78%	143.11%
Moldova	Europe and Central Asia	104.64%	99.90%	124.18%	119.52%	97.45%	126.58%	130.54%
Montenegro	Europe and Central Asia	105.12%	98.51%	120.09%	122.40%	98.43%	127.38%	131.61%
Romania	Europe and Central Asia	104.09%	99.76%	121.68%	121.94%	97.73%	124.98%	129.75%
Russian Federation	Europe and Central Asia	110.40%	105.27%	129.27%	126.48%	104.03%	133.38%	139.28%
Serbia	Europe and Central Asia	104.90%	100.82%	120.56%	119.02%	96.92%	121.16%	130.11%
Tajikistan	Europe and Central Asia	83.69%	82.06%	98.59%	91.64%	80.14%	101.80%	101.71%
Turkey	Europe and Central Asia	106.67%	102.34%	127.77%	124.52%	101.20%	130.85%	136.06%
Ukraine	Europe and Central Asia	99.56%	95.91%	116.27%	116.34%	93.58%	120.21%	123.33%
Uzbekistan	Europe and Central Asia	97.15%	93.99%	113.25%	108.87%	91.22%	115.39%	120.81%
Antigua and Barbuda	Latin America and Caribbean	83.62%	82.36%	97.75%	94.31%	79.48%	101.46%	103.37%
Argentina	Latin America and Caribbean	84.19%	81.73%	99.78%	95.13%	80.02%	102.17%	104.19%
Bahamas, The	Latin America and Caribbean	81.93%	80.50%	96.15%	88.23%	77.30%	96.66%	100.95%
Belize	Latin America and Caribbean	79.33%	76.74%	90.88%	84.73%	73.68%	90.44%	96.27%
Bolivia	Latin America and Caribbean	69.98%	67.99%	81.45%	76.85%	64.94%	81.96%	86.05%
Brazil	Latin America and Caribbean	85.20%	84.31%	101.39%	93.12%	80.94%	105.05%	105.58%
Colombia	Latin America and Caribbean	103.15%	97.20%	114.33%	119.54%	95.99%	121.94%	123.44%
Costa Rica	Latin America and Caribbean	103.56%	97.92%	115.75%	119.46%	97.52%	124.59%	129.52%
Dominica	Latin America and Caribbean	86.69%	85.01%	99.83%	93.88%	81.79%	102.91%	108.48%
Dominican Republic	Latin America and Caribbean	89.52%	85.65%	102.13%	97.63%	82.51%	103.69%	108.57%
Ecuador	Latin America and Caribbean	83.93%	82.17%	98.73%	93.29%	78.66%	101.53%	106.04%
El Salvador	Latin America and Caribbean	97.13%	91.27%	109.70%	111.21%	90.75%	114.08%	121.36%
Grenada	Latin America and Caribbean	80.68%	78.34%	92.31%	87.89%	76.99%	96.22%	97.38%
Guatemala	Latin America and Caribbean	91.95%	88.01%	103.28%	106.56%	87.10%	109.08%	113.70%
Guyana	Latin America and Caribbean	82.53%	80.08%	96.50%	93.53%	78.87%	99.35%	99.85%
Haiti	Latin America and Caribbean	56.75%	54.01%	62.81%	63.41%	52.46%	64.60%	68.24%
Honduras	Latin America and Caribbean	90.68%	86.82%	99.02%	105.92%	85.70%	108.86%	110.53%
Jamaica	Latin America and Caribbean	97.42%	93.04%	107.90%	114.35%	92.68%	115.15%	118.97%
Mexico	Latin America and Caribbean	105.39%	99.16%	117.43%	122.70%	98.28%	126.74%	130.09%
Nicaragua	Latin America and Caribbean	79.92%	77.19%	93.68%	89.75%	75.06%	94.04%	100.78%
Panama	Latin America and Caribbean	98.02%	93.63%	109.56%	113.10%	91.94%	115.58%	121.63%
Paraguay	Latin America and Caribbean	83.36%	82.53%	97.76%	91.04%	79.03%	101.17%	103.09%
Peru	Latin America and Caribbean	99.35%	94.33%	115.27%	116.40%	93.41%	120.64%	124.07%
Puerto Rico US	Latin America and Caribbean	100.72%	95.96%	110.51%	117.30%	94.68%	121.71%	121.28%
St Kitts and Nevis	Latin America and Caribbean	80.92%	78.43%	93.05%	89.71%	75.46%	97.20%	99.55%
St Lucia	Latin America and Caribbean	87.36%	86.36%	100.20%	95.87%	82.87%	102.97%	107.71%
St Vincent & the Grenadines	Latin America and Caribbean	83.31%	81.62%	96.01%	93.62%	78.99%	100.71%	102.42%
Suriname	Latin America and Caribbean	61.32%	59.89%	69.79%	70.02%	57.43%	71.92%	76.31%
Trinidad and Tobago	Latin America and Caribbean	86.54%	85.44%	100.99%	98.87%	82.72%	101.91%	107.82%
Uruguay	Latin America and Caribbean	88.93%	86.92%	102.30%	99.48%	84.42%	104.37%	111.79%
Venezuela, RB	Latin America and Caribbean	40.72%	40.01%	47.29%	43.78%	37.98%	46.77%	49.98%
Algeria	Middle East and North Africa	61.62%	59.79%	69.30%	69.35%	58.00%	73.00%	74.50%
Bahrain	Middle East and North Africa	101.69%	98.59%	120.26%	107.94%	94.32%	121.88%	122.27%
Djibouti	Middle East and North Africa	87.87%	85.44%	104.07%	97.14%	85.20%	102.74%	106.99%
Egypt, Arab Rep	Middle East and North Africa	84.59%	82.26%	98.43%	96.76%	79.78%	99.38%	105.02%
Iran, Islamic Rep	Middle East and North Africa	81.88%	80.11%	96.20%	90.33%	76.56%	98.65%	102.38%
Iraq	Middle East and North Africa	49.88%	48.13%	54.31%	57.10%	46.89%	59.10%	59.40%
Jordan	Middle East and North Africa	87.75%	85.56%	100.91%	95.35%	81.86%	102.90%	109.31%
Kuwait	Middle East and North Africa	92.72%	90.60%	107.99%	96.41%	86.68%	108.30%	110.58%
Lebanon	Middle East and North Africa	78.06%	75.38%	91.59%	84.66%	73.84%	92.01%	96.18%
Morocco	Middle East and North Africa	99.29%	97.31%	116.56%	107.45%	92.76%	117.68%	121.22%
Oman	Middle East and North Africa	95.78%	93.16%	111.70%	101.98%	89.39%	112.34%	117.00%
Qatar	Middle East and North Africa	96.21%	93.18%	112.46%	97.54%	89.82%	111.06%	116.50%
Saudi Arabia	Middle East and North Africa	99.07%	95.12%	118.10%	107.31%	94.96%	120.84%	122.28%
Syrian Arab Republic	Middle East and North Africa	63.82%	61.70%	73.90%	69.64%	59.76%	74.10%	75.91%
Tunisia	Middle East and North Africa	92.61%	90.62%	107.31%	100.35%	87.92%	110.52%	113.87%
United Arab Emirates	Middle East and North Africa	117.54%	113.96%	139.89%	127.08%	108.83%	141.50%	146.20%
West Bank and Gaza	Middle East and North Africa	94.03%	88.88%	106.42%	108.49%	89.37%	112.51%	117.69%
Yemen, Rep	Middle East and North Africa	30.39%	28.69%	33.09%	33.33%	27.74%	33.36%	36.27%
Australia	OECD high income	113.82%	107.24%	131.78%	131.82%	106.20%	137.71%	139.89%
Austria	OECD high income	109.42%	104.87%	128.21%	121.70%	100.58%	130.89%	137.17%
Belgium	OECD high income	104.33%	98.65%	119.37%	116.94%	95.24%	120.09%	127.14%
Canada	OECD high income	110.21%	104.09%	130.41%	129.37%	104.68%	133.84%	137.11%
Chile	OECD high income	99.33%	97.66%	116.50%	110.75%	92.37%	119.90%	122.89%
Czech Republic	OECD high income	107.25%	103.46%	123.02%	120.57%	98.79%	123.75%	135.03%
Denmark	OECD high income	116.21%	112.29%	136.44%	131.52%	106.39%	138.23%	146.47%
Estonia	OECD high income	115.20%	109.40%	134.42%	128.32%	104.15%	135.68%	142.91%
Finland	OECD high income	108.76%	105.54%	127.76%	122.03%	99.77%	128.01%	136.36%
France	OECD high income	107.03%	104.06%	125.22%	119.77%	99.00%	127.57%	133.99%
Germany	OECD high income	105.53%	106.57%	125.61%	123.74%	101.17%	125.79%	134.00%
Greece	OECD high income	97.68%	93.31%	112.67%	108.13%	89.78%	109.90%	119.92%
Hungary	OECD high income	105.67%	99.96%	122.03%	121.60%	97.48%	124.53%	131.29%
Iceland	OECD high income	107.32%	105.51%	128.15%	120.68%	100.85%	131.31%	136.77%
Ireland	OECD high income	108.91%	105.60%	130.80%	123.75%	101.56%	129.59%	134.46%
Israel	OECD high income	99.85%	97.43%	119.42%	116.70%	95.69%	120.36%	124.66%
Italy	OECD high income	101.87%	97.72%	117.32%	112.18%	93.73%	118.82%	125.83%
Japan	OECD high income	100.57%	99.70%	118.29%	113.37%	94.16%	120.56%	127.12%
Korea, Rep	OECD high income	116.51%	112.74%	135.78%	130.52%	107.71%	141.85%	144.51%
Latvia	OECD high income	114.77%	107.17%	132.60%	132.76%	105.94%	137.72%	140.39%
Lithuania	OECD high income	117.03%	110.81%	138.07%	130.28%	106.62%	138.63%	145.84%
Luxembourg	OECD high income	88.92%	85.87%	101.68%	101.47%	82.33%	104.44%	109.33%
Netherlands	OECD high income	104.71%	100.51%	121.12%	115.11%	96.05%	121.18%	129.67%
New Zealand	OECD high income	125.37%	118.08%	145.78%	147.18%	117.06%	151.79%	156.92%
Norway	OECD high income	113.36%	109.30%	134.23%	127.46%	105.73%	140.06%	140.49%
Poland	OECD high income	108.16%	103.66%	125.68%	125.97%	100.26%	126.88%	134.97%
Portugal	OECD high income	106.05%	101.51%	122.36%	116.15%	97.02%	123.01%	131.07%
Slovak Republic	OECD high income	108.08%	103.05%	125.37%	121.24%	98.66%	126.81%	135.54%
Slovenia	OECD high income	105.33%	100.33%	121.23%	115.45%	96.64%	120.86%	129.74%
Spain	OECD high income	108.88%	103.58%	126.33%	121.48%	99.76%	127.36%	134.65%
Sweden	OECD high income	111.69%	108.97%	131.32%	124.08%	103.49%	134.51%	140.33%
Switzerland	OECD high income	107.07%	103.71%	124.24%	117.73%	98.90%	126.88%	133.01%
United Kingdom	OECD high income	111.49%	111.01%	133.46%	131.49%	106.06%	136.09%	144.82%
United States	OECD high income	116.65%	109.65%	131.99%	136.08%	109.23%	142.58%	144.79%
Afghanistan	South Asia	70.30%	68.83%	83.81%	77.00%	67.15%	82.32%	85.37%
Bangladesh	South Asia	61.68%	60.19%	70.91%	67.26%	58.95%	71.73%	75.02%
Bhutan	South Asia	101.91%	98.81%	119.45%	112.82%	93.77%	114.96%	126.08%
India	South Asia	98.83%	96.38%	117.30%	114.79%	95.26%	113.28%	123.60%
Maldives	South Asia	80.46%	78.88%	91.91%	86.28%	76.58%	93.41%	96.29%
Nepal	South Asia	85.00%	82.01%	99.65%	95.32%	80.36%	99.84%	105.03%
Pakistan	South Asia	80.83%	78.05%	96.83%	88.74%	78.00%	92.94%	98.71%
Sri Lanka	South Asia	87.83%	85.35%	101.23%	95.48%	82.73%	100.80%	108.41%
Angola	Sub-Saharan Africa	49.61%	47.71%	54.23%	57.06%	46.84%	58.77%	60.16%
Benin	Sub-Saharan Africa	75.09%	73.93%	85.14%	80.37%	71.90%	85.85%	90.20%
Botswana	Sub-Saharan Africa	94.18%	91.27%	110.49%	105.90%	86.75%	110.12%	115.42%
Burkina Faso	Sub-Saharan Africa	74.54%	73.51%	84.56%	79.69%	71.00%	85.06%	88.52%
Burundi	Sub-Saharan Africa	62.81%	61.10%	68.75%	69.49%	59.83%	72.65%	73.73%
Cabo Verde	Sub-Saharan Africa	85.24%	83.38%	100.46%	93.21%	80.16%	102.25%	103.47%
Cameroon	Sub-Saharan Africa	67.04%	64.86%	75.21%	76.00%	63.24%	76.44%	80.28%
Central African Republic	Sub-Saharan Africa	52.63%	51.48%	61.31%	57.11%	50.14%	61.60%	64.21%
Chad	Sub-Saharan Africa	56.35%	56.67%	66.74%	60.33%	53.70%	68.30%	69.49%
Comoros	Sub-Saharan Africa	75.52%	74.72%	87.07%	82.11%	71.52%	88.73%	91.89%
Congo, Dem Rep	Sub-Saharan Africa	39.05%	36.82%	42.55%	41.80%	35.66%	41.54%	45.51%
Congo, Rep	Sub-Saharan Africa	57.40%	57.70%	66.76%	61.55%	54.91%	67.24%	69.54%
Côte d’Ivoire	Sub-Saharan Africa	85.90%	82.78%	97.36%	98.74%	81.57%	101.19%	103.19%
Equatorial Guinea	Sub-Saharan Africa	67.99%	65.09%	78.35%	73.65%	62.42%	80.40%	82.08%
Eritrea	Sub-Saharan Africa	28.25%	26.86%	31.17%	31.86%	26.14%	31.51%	33.92%
Ethiopia	Sub-Saharan Africa	68.02%	65.67%	78.73%	75.54%	63.93%	81.11%	82.38%
Gabon	Sub-Saharan Africa	68.66%	67.24%	77.93%	73.50%	65.89%	77.90%	81.37%
Gambia, The	Sub-Saharan Africa	75.26%	73.24%	86.70%	82.31%	69.99%	88.29%	91.58%
Ghana	Sub-Saharan Africa	86.48%	84.20%	100.43%	98.79%	81.99%	103.40%	108.13%
Guinea	Sub-Saharan Africa	75.42%	74.94%	86.75%	80.34%	72.03%	88.83%	90.59%
Guinea-Bissau	Sub-Saharan Africa	67.02%	64.94%	76.15%	71.61%	63.52%	78.18%	80.95%
Kenya	Sub-Saharan Africa	105.45%	99.79%	121.16%	123.02%	100.12%	124.05%	128.48%
Lesotho	Sub-Saharan Africa	90.36%	86.90%	104.26%	101.84%	83.81%	102.49%	110.79%
Liberia	Sub-Saharan Africa	64.47%	63.11%	75.52%	69.22%	61.43%	73.92%	78.65%
Madagascar	Sub-Saharan Africa	70.92%	70.13%	80.87%	77.01%	68.33%	81.66%	85.04%
Malawi	Sub-Saharan Africa	93.69%	89.61%	103.45%	108.80%	88.65%	112.84%	113.69%
Mali	Sub-Saharan Africa	77.11%	75.14%	87.34%	83.09%	73.21%	87.25%	92.79%
Mauritania	Sub-Saharan Africa	81.31%	78.96%	92.82%	87.78%	77.79%	95.65%	95.91%
Mauritius	Sub-Saharan Africa	109.72%	107.51%	132.36%	122.90%	103.51%	134.31%	134.17%
Mozambique	Sub-Saharan Africa	77.88%	76.90%	88.82%	85.23%	73.58%	89.74%	96.03%
Namibia	Sub-Saharan Africa	88.00%	85.24%	103.75%	98.36%	81.85%	106.37%	108.53%
Niger	Sub-Saharan Africa	79.69%	77.94%	89.97%	85.12%	76.62%	92.41%	93.95%
Nigeria	Sub-Saharan Africa	79.68%	75.33%	90.77%	92.31%	74.21%	93.27%	96.16%
Rwanda	Sub-Saharan Africa	115.95%	109.18%	134.30%	133.69%	107.94%	141.97%	142.61%
São Tomé and Príncipe	Sub-Saharan Africa	67.51%	66.25%	77.33%	73.24%	63.94%	77.33%	81.77%
Senegal	Sub-Saharan Africa	79.03%	76.93%	88.92%	84.12%	75.42%	91.28%	93.60%
Seychelles	Sub-Saharan Africa	89.43%	86.67%	105.20%	93.95%	83.46%	104.58%	106.66%
Sierra Leone	Sub-Saharan Africa	73.19%	71.48%	83.62%	79.48%	69.74%	86.37%	87.12%
South Africa	Sub-Saharan Africa	95.11%	90.87%	114.80%	106.11%	90.06%	113.07%	116.14%
Sudan	Sub-Saharan Africa	66.67%	65.27%	76.43%	71.77%	62.70%	78.46%	81.41%
Tanzania	Sub-Saharan Africa	76.05%	72.86%	87.54%	87.00%	70.66%	90.99%	93.66%
Togo	Sub-Saharan Africa	79.19%	77.01%	89.08%	84.49%	75.50%	91.72%	93.45%
Uganda	Sub-Saharan Africa	81.49%	78.62%	97.03%	93.43%	76.37%	97.58%	102.65%
Zambia	Sub-Saharan Africa	100.30%	95.89%	113.87%	116.32%	94.82%	117.30%	120.33%
Zimbabwe	Sub-Saharan Africa	74.35%	69.94%	88.72%	86.22%	70.06%	91.16%	92.22%

1. Note: $\widehat \theta _{m,c}^{EAP}$: robust country EDB composite indicator score relative to the best practice frontier of East Asia and Pacific region; $\widehat \theta _{m,c}^{ECA}$: robust country EDB composite indicator score relative to the best practice frontier of Europe and Central Asia region; $\widehat \theta _{m,c}^{LAC}$: robust country EDB composite indicator score relative to the best practice frontier of Latin America and Caribbean region; $\widehat \theta _{m,c}^{MENA}$: robust country EDB composite indicator score relative to the best practice frontier of Middle East and North Africa region; $\widehat \theta _{m,c}^{OECD}$: robust country EDB composite indicator score relative to the best practice frontier of High Income OECD region; $\widehat \theta _{m,c}^{SA}$: robust country EDB composite indicator score relative to the best practice frontier of South Asia region; $\widehat \theta _{m,c}^{SSA}$: robust country EDB composite indicator score relative to the best practice frontier of Sub-Saharan Africa region.