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Dynamics of Public Policy: Determinants of Policymaking and Implementation in Bangladesh

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Abstract

Socio-economic development achievements in Bangladesh have been characterized as a development paradox. The policymaking process in Bangladesh is seen as the outcome of incentives created by patronage politics as opposed to the compulsion for the government to play an effective developmental role. A number of factors strongly affect the public policy formulation and implementation process—factors such as the assistance and extent of pressure and persuasion from international development partners, and the capacity to mobilize and manage resources. The political commitment at the highest level is found to be the most critical determinant element of policy formulation and implementation in Bangladesh.

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Notes

  1. Since 2000, the growth of the GDP was around 5 %; the population growth rate fell from 2.4 to 1.5 % between the last two decades. Human development indicators ranked Bangladesh amongst the top performers in the UNDP Human Development Index. The index on human poverty shows a decline from 63.1 in 1981–83 to 34.8 in 1998–2000. Thus the head count poverty index has declined from 70 % in the early 1970s to 50 % in 2000 (See UNDP 2011).

  2. Through the 15th Amendment, socialism has been reintroduced into Bangladesh’s constitution. Socialism has been defined as an economic system that aims to ensure the attainment of a just and egalitarian society, free from the exploitation of man by man (article 10 of the constitution).

  3. The Planning Commission is composed of six divisions. These are the General Economics Division, the Programming, Evaluation and Appraisal Division, the Socio-Economic Infrastructure Division, the Industries and Energy Division, the Physical Infrastructure Division, and the Agriculture, Water and Rural Institutions Division.

  4. This observation was made by a retired senior civil servant and later adviser to the caretaker government. Speaking from his personal experience and institutional memory, he referred to the case of the last-minute change of the national budget, which had already been printed. It was called back for correction and reprinted. Such changes were made to accommodate the pressure induced by a strong lobbyist group.

  5. The cabinet committees are as follows: Food planning and monitoring committee, Senior appointment, Promotion and service structure committee, National award committee, Government purchase committee, Committee on pay fixation, Committee on foreign employment, Committee on urgent and national interest, Committee on finance and economic affairs, Committee on foreign affairs, Committee on law and order.

  6. In Bangladesh, a government ministry is composed of one division or a group of divisions. ‘Division’ means a self-contained administrative unit responsible for conducting the business of the government in a distinct and specified sphere. Each division is headed by a secretary. Each division also has a ‘wing’, that is, a self-contained subdivision for conducting specified duties. A wing is headed by a joint secretary and additional secretary. Wings are further divided into sections – headed by an assistant secretary and senior assistant secretary.

  7. At present there are 37 ministries and 17 divisions. Each ministry has at least one division, and the relatively larger ministries have two or more divisions. In addition, there are independent divisions enjoying the status of a ministry but not necessarily attached to any ministry.

  8. The ICT Policy 2009 of Government of Bangladesh is an example. This policy has been a pet project of Prime Minister Sk. Hasina, and it was also a highly prioritized area of concern in the election manifesto of the current ruling party, the Awami League. Technical support for the policy was given by a special project called Information (A2I) Programme based at Prime Minister’s Office. Members of the bureaucracy reported during the interview that the ICT policy was drafted and approved in the shortest possible time. Routine steps in the formulation and approval processes were not followed.

  9. International donors, both bilateral and multilateral, have a significant presence in Bangladesh and play an important role in the development of the country. Approximately 2 % of GDP, depending on how one counts it, derives from donor contributions.

  10. A purposive sampling was done. Respondents were drawn from amongst those who have at least 3 years of working experiences at any ministry, and who hold higher policy-level positions and have personal experiences in drafting and or implementing a public policy. The respondents include 33 deputy secretaries, 21 joint secretaries,14 additional secretaries and 8 secretaries of the government of Bangladesh. Sampled respondents covered 22 divisions/ministries of the government of Bangladesh. The questionnaire used a five point Likert scale to assess the relative strengths of the respective factors. In addition to the questionnaire survey, in-depth interviews were conducted with 10 incumbent and retired senior civil servants holding strategic policy-making positions.

  11. See the Appendix for the operational definitions of the dependent and independent variables.

  12. The Economic Relations Division (ERD) of Ministry of Finance, in its review of 58 slow projects, observed that most of the donor-funded projects are running far short of the implementation schedule. The ERD review has identified that the reasons for the delays stem from both the government and the donors. ERD noted some of the faults of the donor agencies too, which include delayed disbursement, complex and delayed process of appointing consultants, and long time periods from approval to contract awarding.

  13. As of 31 March 2012, the total unused foreign aid in the pipeline was $16.61 billion, of which the government could spend only 8.47 %. The ERD, in its review of 58 slow projects, observed that most of the donor-funded projects are running far short of the implementation schedule. The ERD review states that the delays are caused by both the government and the donors. The government’s faults include the following: delays and allegation in procurement process, faulty project documents, unrealistic requisition for fund allocation, and delays in land acquisition. (For faults of the donor agencies see previous footnote). ERD officials however recognize that over the years, the absorption capacities of the ministries and divisions have not considerably improved. This is causing a huge amount of unused foreign aid to pile up. During the first 11 month of the fiscal 2011 year, the donors disbursed only 40 % of $4,284.24 million of the foreign loans and grants they were committed to release (The Daily Star, 24 May 2012).

  14. One study observed that on average, a secretary of a ministry remains in his position for around 1.2 years and then gets transferred to another posting. For details see, Surayya Akhtar Jahan, Top Managers in Secretariat and District: An Analysis of Trends, Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Centre for Governance Studies, BRAC University, 2007.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Public Administration, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh

    Salahuddin M. Aminuzzaman

  2. MPPG Program, North South University, Dhaka, Bangladesh

    Salahuddin M. Aminuzzaman

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  1. Salahuddin M. Aminuzzaman
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Correspondence to Salahuddin M. Aminuzzaman.

Appendix

Appendix

  • Operationalization of dependent variables:

    • Policy formulation refers to the factors that influence the formulation process. Clustered variables of policy formulation include idea generation, data gathering and analyses, in-house discussion, preliminary drafting, consultation and meetings with donor agencies, authorization from planning commission, drafting policy brief and notes for political executives, and placement of draft policy paper to the cabinet.

    • Policy implementation refers to the activities and processes whereby the concerned ministry implements the policy through its affiliated departments and line agencies. It also refers to the actual and anticipated outcome or result, and to getting necessary support from donor agencies, the ministry of finance, and the planning commission.

  • Operationalization of independent variable:

    • Change in leadership and regime change: tenure of the secretary and/or the minister of the respective ministry

    • Community/Stakeholder participation: scope and option/methodology of participation in the process

    • Donor conditions: number of conditions/list of dos and do-nots set by the donors in the aid memoir/aid proposal

    • Donor technical assistance: number of ‘man-months’ of international consultants engaged in the process

    • Long term perspective: provisions of the 5-year plan and other sectoral policies

    • Managerial and technical skills: number and nature of the professional staff engaged in the process

    • Political will and direction: directives from the minister and/or prime minister and members of parliament

    • Supportive rules and synergy: supplementary rules of similar and related programs and policies

    • Allocation and control over resources: amount of resource allocated and the time lag in the release of fund from the ministry of finance and/or donors.

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Aminuzzaman, S.M. Dynamics of Public Policy: Determinants of Policymaking and Implementation in Bangladesh. Public Organiz Rev 13, 443–458 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11115-013-0262-7

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