Abstract
Purpose
Fast-growing tree plantations on abandoned agricultural soils is a promising management system to sequester atmospheric CO2. However, the effects of fast-growing trees on the nutritional and organic carbon (SOC) status of soils degraded by agriculture, are poorly understood.
Methods
We sampled the soil after 20 years in 10 silver birch plantations on former agricultural soils in hemiboreal Estonia to assess changes in soil chemical properties (SOC, N, C:N ratio, pHKCl, P, and K) in 10-cm vertical mineral soil layers to a depth of 30 cm and to determine the potential environmental drivers of plant-soil interactions.
Results
We observed no depletion of SOC or macronutrients in the upper 0–30-cm soil layer, but found some vertical shifts among the sublayers. The SOC concentration increased by 22% in the upper 0–10-cm soil layer, especially in sites with higher aboveground productivity. Simultaneously, SOC concentration decreased by 17% in the 20–30-cm soil sublayer, which indicating trees’ ability to alter decomposition activity in deeper vertical soil layers. In the 20–30-cm sublayer, SOC mineralization was supported by an 11% decrease in the C:N ratio. Similarly, the total N concentration increased in the 0–10-cm soil layer by 13%. The concentration of plant-available P increased by ~ 30% in the 20–30-cm sublayer.
Conclusion
Two decades of afforestation of former agricultural soils caused vertical stratification of SOC in the upper mineral soil layer (0–30 cm) where trees can access deeper nutrient pools for active cycling, but caused no loss of SOC or nutrients.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alberti G, Nock C, Fornasier F, Scherer-Lorenzen M, De Nobili M, Peressotti A, Hoenig L, Bruelheide H, Bauhus J (2017) Tree functional diversity influences belowground ecosystem functioning. Appl Soil Ecol 120:160–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2017.07.038
Alriksson A, Eriksson HM (1998) Variations in mineral nutrient and C distribution in the soil and vegetation compartments of five temperate tree species in NE Sweden. For Ecol Manag 108:261–273. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1127(98)00230-8
Aronsson P, Rosenqvist H, Dimitriou I (2014) Impact of nitrogen fertilization to short-rotation willow coppice plantations grown in Sweden on yield and economy. Bio Energ Res 7:993–1001. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12155-014-9435-7
Aun K, Kukumägi M, Varik M, Becker H, Aosaar J, Uri M, Buht M, Uri V (2021) Short-term effect of thinning on the carbon budget of young and middle-aged silver birch (Betula pendula Roth) stands. For Ecol Manag 480:118660. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2020.118660
Averill C, Turner BL, Finzi AC (2014) Mycorrhiza-mediated competition between plants and decomposers drives soil carbon storage. Nature 505:543–545. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12901
Azeez MO, Christensen JT, Ravnskov S, Heckrath GJ, Labouriau R, Christensen BT, Rubæk GH (2020) Phosphorus in an arable coarse sandy soil profile after 74 years with different lime and P fertilizer applications. Geoderma 376:114555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2020.114555
Bárcena TG, Kiaer LP, Vesterdal L, Stefansdottir HM, Gundersen P, Sigurdsson BD (2014a) Soil carbon stock change following afforestation in Northern Europe: a meta-analysis. Glob Change Biol 20:2393–2405. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12576
Bárcena TG, Gundersen P, Vesterdal L (2014b) Afforestation effects on SOC in former cropland: Oak and spruce chronosequences resampled after 13 years. Glob Change Biol 20:2938–2952. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12608
Bastin JF, Finegold Y, Garcia C, Mollicone D, Rezende M, Routh D, Zohner CM, Crowther TW (2019) The global tree restoration potential. Science 365:76–79. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aax0848
Bates D, Mächler M, Bolker B, Walker S (2015) Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. J Stat Softw 67:1–48. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v067.i01
Baum C, Fienemann M, Glatzel S, Gleixner G (2009) Overstory-specific effects of litter fall on the microbial carbon turnover in a mature deciduous forest. For Ecol Manag 258:109–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2009.03.047
Berthrong ST, Jobbágy EG, Jackson RB (2009) A global meta-analysis of soil exchangeable cations, pH, and nitrogen with afforestation. Ecol Appl 19:2228–2241. https://doi.org/10.1890/08-1730.1
Cebrián J, Duarte CM (1995) Plant growth-rate dependence of detrital carbon storage in ecosystems. Science 268:1606–1608. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.268.5217.1606
Chen CR, Condron L, Xu ZM (2008) Impacts of grassland afforestation with coniferous trees on soil phosphorus dynamics and associated microbial processes: A review. For Ecol Manag 255:396–409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2007.10.040
Cools N, Vesterdal L, De Vos B, Vanguelova E, Hansen K (2014) Tree species is the major factor explaining C:N ratios in European forest soils. For Ecol Manag 311:3–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2013.06.047
Dawud SM, Raulund-Rasmussen K, Domisch T, Finer L, Jaroszewicz B, Vesterdal L (2016) Is tree species diversity or species identity the more important driver of soil carbon stocks, C/N ratio, and pH? Ecosystems 19:645–660. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-016-9958-1
De Schrijver A, De Frenne P, Staelens J, Verstraeten G, Muys B, Vesterdal L, Wuyts K, van Nevel L, Schelfhout S, De Neve S, Verheyen K (2012) Tree species traits cause divergence in soil acidification during four decades of postagricultural forest development. Glob Change Biol 18:1127–1140. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02572.x
Deng Q, McMahon DE, Xiang Y, Yu CL, Jackson RB, Hui D (2017) A global meta-analysis of soil phosphorus dynamics after afforestation. Glob Change Biol 213:181–192. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.14119
Dimitriou I, Mola-Yudego B (2016) Poplar and willow plantations on agricultural land in Sweden: Area, yield, groundwater quality and soil organic carbon. For Ecol Manag 383:99–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.08.022
Dimitriou I, Mola-Yudego B (2014) Nitrogen fertilization of poplar plantations on agricultural land: Effects on diameter increments and leaching. Scand J Forest Res 32:1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/02827581.2016.1264622
Estonian Weather Service (2022) Estonian environment agency. https://www.ilmateenistus.ee/?lang=en. Accessed 03.03.2022
European Commission (2021) The 3 billion tree planting pledge for 2030. 53 p. Available via DIALOG https://ec.europa.eu/environment/pdf/forests/swd_3bn_trees.pdf Accessed 7 Apr 2022
Fontaine S, Bardoux G, Abbadie L, Mariotti A (2004) Carbon input to soil may decrease soil carbon content. Ecol Lett 7:314–320. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2004.00579.x
Fox J, Weisberg S (2019) An R companion to applied regression. 3rd edn. Sage, Thousand Oaks, 608 p
Fox TR, Allen HL, Albaugh TJ, Rubilar R, Carlson CA (2007) Tree nutrition and forest fertilization of pine plantations in the southern United States. South J Appl For 31:5–11. https://doi.org/10.1093/sjaf/31.1.5
Fradette O, Marty C, Faubert P, Dessureault PL, Pare M, Bouchard S, Villeneuve C (2021) Additional carbon sequestration potential of abandoned agricultural land afforestation in the boreal zone: A modelling approach. For Ecol Manag 499:119565. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2021.119565
Guo LB, Gifford RM (2002) Soil carbon stocks and land use change: a meta-analysis. Glob Change Biol 8:345–360. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1354-1013.2002.00486.x
Henriksson N, Lim H, Marshall J, Franklin O, McMurtrie RE, Lutter R, Magh RK, Lundmark T, Näsholm T (2021) Tree water uptake enhances nitrogen acquisition in a fertilised boreal forest - but not under nitrogen poor conditions. New Phytol 232:113–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.17578
Hinsinger P, Plassard C, Tang C, Jaillard B (2003) Origins of root-mediated pH changes in the rhizosphere and their response to environmental constraints: a review. Plant Soil 248:43–59. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022371130939
Högberg P, Wellbrock N, Högberg MN, Mikaelsson H, Stendahl J (2021) Large differences in plant nitrogen supply in German and Swedish forests – Implications for management. For Ecol Manag 482:118899. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2020.118899
IUSS Working Group WRB (2014) International soil classification system for naming soils and creating legends for soil maps. World Reference Base for Soil Resources 2014. World Soil Resources Reports No. 106. FAO, Rome
Jobbagy EG, Jackson RB (2001) The distribution of soil nutrients with depth: Global patterns and the imprint of plants. Biogeochemistry 53:51–77. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010760720215
Jug A, Makeschin F, Rehfuess KE, Hofmann-Schielle C (1999) Short-rotation plantations of balsam poplars, aspen and willows on former arable land in the Federal Republic of Germany. III. For Ecol Manag 121:85–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1127(98)00558-1
Kalliokoski T, Pennanen T, Nygren P, Sievänen R, Helmisaari HS (2010) Belowground interspecific competition in mixed boreal forests: fine root and ectomycorrhiza characteristics along stand developmental stage and soil fertility gradients. Plant Soil 330:73–89. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-009-0177-9
Kõlli R, Karklins A, Marcinkonis S, Astover A, Toomsoo A (2008) Soil phosphorus status in Baltic countries and its sustainable management. NFJ Rep 4:92–96
Kund M, Vares A, Sims A, Tullus H, Uri V (2010) Early growth and development of silver birch (Betula pendula Roth) plantations on abandoned agricultural land. Eur J Forest Res 129:679–688. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10342-010-0369-0
Landsberg JJ, Waring RH (1997) A generalised model of forest productivity using simplified concepts of radiation-use efficiency, carbon balance and partitioning. For Ecol Manag 95:209–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1127(97)00026-1
Lang F, Bauhus J, Frossard E, George E, Kaiser K, Kaupenjohann M, Krüger J, Matzner E, Polle A, Prietzel J, Rennenberg H, Wellbrock N (2016) Phosphorus in forest ecosystems: New insights from an ecosystem nutrition perspective. J Plant Nutr Soil Sc 179:129–135. https://doi.org/10.1002/jpln.201500541
Lenth RV(2021) emmeans : Estimated Marginal Means, aka Least-Squares Means. R package version 1.7.0
Lõhmus E (1974) Eesti metsade ordineerimisest ja klassifitseerimisest (Ordination and classification of Estonian forests). For Stud 11:162–194 (in Estonian)
Lutter R, Stål G, Ceder LA, Lim H, Padari A, Tullus H, Nordin A, Lundmark T (2021a) Climate benefit of different tree species on former agricultural land in Northern Europe. Forests. https://doi.org/10.3390/f12121810
Lutter R, Henriksson N, Lim H, Blasko R, Magh RK, Näsholm T, Nordin A, Lundmark T, Marshall J (2021b) Belowground resource utilization in monocultures and mixtures of Scots pine and Norway spruce. For Ecol Manag 500:119647. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2021.119647
Lutter R, Tullus A, Kanal A, Tullus T, Tullus H (2017) Above-ground growth and temporal plant-soil relations in midterm hybrid aspen (Populus tremula L. × P. tremuloides Michx.) plantations on former arable lands in hemiboreal Estonia. Scand J Forest Res 8:688–699. https://doi.org/10.1080/02827581.2017.1278784
Lutter R, Tullus A, Kanal A, Tullus T, Tullus H (2016a) The impact of former land-use type to above- and below-ground C and N pools in short-rotation hybrid aspen (Populus tremula L. × P. tremuloides Michx.) plantations in hemiboreal conditions. For Ecol Manag 378:79–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.07.021
Lutter R, Tullus A, Kanal A, Tullus T, Tullus H (2016b) The impact of short-rotation hybrid aspen (Populus tremula L. × P. tremuloides Michx.) plantations on nutritional status of former arable soils. For Ecol Manag 362:184–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2015.12.009
Lutter R, Tullus A, Kanal A, Tullus T, Vares A, Tullus H (2015) Growth development and plant-soil relations in mid-term silver birch (Betula pendula Roth) plantations on previous agricultural lands in hemiboreal Estonia. Eur J Forest Res 134:653–667. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10342-015-0879-x
Mayer M, Prescott C, Abaker WEA, Augusto L, Cecillon L, Ferreira GWD, James J, Jandl R, Katzensteiner K, Laclau JP, Laganiere J, Nouvellon Y, Pare D, Stanturf JA, Vanguelova EI, Vesterdal L (2020) Tamm Review: Influence of forest management activities on soil carbon stocks: A knowledge synthesis. For Ecol Manag 466:118127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2020.118127
McMurtrie RE, Näsholm T (2018) Quantifying the contribution of mass flow to nitrogen acquisition by an individual plant root. New Phytol 218:119–130. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.14927
Mobley ML, Lajtha K, Kramer MG, Bacon AR, Heine PR, Richter DD (2015) Surficial gains and subsoil losses of soil carbon and nitrogen during secondary forest development. Glob Change Biol 21:986–996. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12715
Mola-Yudego B, Arevalo J, Díaz-Yáñez O, Dimitriou I, Haapala A, Carlos Ferraz Filho A, Selkimäki M, Valbuena R (2017) Wood biomass potentials for energy in northern Europe: Forest or plantations? Biomass Bioenerg 106:95–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2017.08.021
Nikodemus O, Kasparinskis R, Kukuls I (2013) Influence of afforestation on soil genesis, morphology and properties in glacial till deposits. Arch Agron Soil Sci 59:449–465. https://doi.org/10.1080/03650340.2011.638290
Noormets A, Bracho R, Ward E, Seiler J, Strahm B, Lin W, McElligott K, Domec JC, Benecke CG, Jokela EJ, Markewitz D, Meek C, Miao G, McNulty SG, King JS, Samuelson L, Sun G, Teskey R, Vogel J, Will R, Yang J, Martin A (2021) Heterotrophic Respiration and the Divergence of Productivity and Carbon Sequestration. Geophys Res Lett 48:e2020GL092366. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL092366
Noormets A, Epron D, Domec JC, McNulty SG, Fox T, Sun G, King JS (2015) Effects of forest management on productivity and carbon sequestration: A review and hypothesis. For Ecol Manag 355:124–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2015.05.019
Pribyl DW (2010) A critical review of the conventional SOC to SOM conversion factor. Geoderma 156:75–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2010.02.003
R Core Team (2021) R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna. http://www.R-project.org/. Accessed 03.03.2022
Rahman MM, Bárcena TG, Vesterdal L (2017) Tree species and time since afforestation drive soil C and N mineralization on former cropland. Geoderma 305:153–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2017.06.002
Ritter E, Vesterdal L, Gundersen P (2003) Changes in soil properties after afforestation of former intensively managed soils with oak and Norway spruce. Plant Soil 249:319–330. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022808410732
Rosenvald K, Ostonen K, Uri V, Varik M, Tedersoo L, Lõhmus K (2012) Tree age effect on fine-root and leaf morphology in a silver birch forest chronosequence. Eur J For Res 132:219–230. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10342-012-0669-7
Rubæk GH, Kristensen K, Olesen SE, Østergaard HS, Heckrath G (2013) Phosphorus accumulation and spatial distribution in agricultural soils in Denmark. Geoderma 209–210:241–250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2013.06.022
Rytter L, Ingerslev M, Kilpeläinen A, Torssonen P, Lazdina D, Löf M, Madsen P, Muiste P, Stener LG (2016) Increased forest biomass production in the Nordic and Baltic countries – a review on current and future opportunities. Silva Fenn 50:id1660. https://doi.org/10.14214/sf.1660
Rytter RM, Rytter L (2020) Changes in soil chemistry in an afforestation experiment with five tree species. Plant Soil 456:425–437. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-020-04726-7
Rytter RM (2016) Afforestation of former agricultural land with Salicaceae species – Initial effects on soil carbon, mineral nutrients, C:N and pH. For Ecol Manag 363:21–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2015.12.026
Sevel L, Nord-Larsen T, Ingerslev M, Jorgensen U, Raulund-Rasmussen K (2014) Fertilization of SRC Willow, I: Biomass production response. BioEnerg Res 7:319–328. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12155-013-9371-y
Stark H, Nothdurft A, Block J, Bauhus J (2015) Forest restoration with Betula ssp. and Populus ssp. nurse crops increases productivity and soil fertility. For Ecol Manag 339:57–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2014.12.003
Steffens C, Beer C, Schelfhout S, De Schrijver A, Pfeiffer EM, Vesterdal L (2021) Do tree species affect decadal changes in soil organic carbon and total nitrogen stocks in Danish common garden experiments? Eur J Soil Sci 73:e13206. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejss.13206
Subke JA, Reichstein M, Tenhunen JD (2003) Explaining temporal variation in soil CO2 efflux in a mature spruce forest in Southern Germany. Soil Biol Biochem 35:1467–1483. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0038-0717(03)00241-4
Tullus H, Tullus A, Rytter L (2013) Short-rotation forestry for supplying biomass for energy production. In: Kellomäki S, Kilpeläinen A, Ashraful A (eds) Forest BioEnergy Production: Management, Carbon Sequestration and Adaptation, Springer, New York Heidelberg Dordercht London, pp 39–56
Tullus A, Lukason O, Vares A, Padari A, Lutter R, Tullus T, Karoles K, Tullus H (2012) Economics of hybrid aspen (Populus tremula L. × P. tremuloides Michx.) and silver birch (Betula pendula Roth) plantations on abandoned agricultural lands in Estonia. Baltic For 18:288–298
Tullus A, Kanal A, Soo T, Tullus H (2010) The impact of available water content in previous agricultural soils on tree growth and nutritional status in young hybrid aspen plantations in Estonia. Plant Soil 333:129–145. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-010-0330-5
Uri V, Varik M, Aosaar J, Kanal A, Kukumägi M, Lõhmus K (2012) Biomass production and carbon sequestration in a fertile silver birch (Betula pendula Roth) forest chronosequence. For Ecol Manag 267:117–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2011.11.033
Uri V, Vares A, Tullus H, Kanal A (2007) Above-ground biomass production and nutrient accumulation in young stands of silver birch on abandoned agricultural land. Biomass Bioenerg 31:195–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2006.08.003
Vares A, Jõgiste K, Kull E (2001) Early growth of some deciduous tree species on abandoned agricultural lands in Estonia. Baltic For 7:52–58
Venables WN, Ripley BD (2002) Modern applied statistics with S, 4th edn. Springer, New York, p 495
Vesterdal L, Elberling B, Christiansen JR, Callesen I, Schmidt IK (2012) Soil respiration and rates of soil carbon turnover differ among six common European tree species. For Ecol Manag 264:185–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2011.10.009
Vesterdal L, Ritter E, Gundersen P (2002) Change in soil organic carbon following afforestation of former arable land. For Ecol Manag 169:137–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1127(02)00304-3
Wall A, Heiskanen J (2003) Water-retention characteristics and related physical properties of soil on afforested agricultural land in Finland. For Ecol Manag 186:21–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1127(03)00239-1
Wall A, Hytönen J (2005) Soil fertility of afforested arable land compared to continuously forested sites. Plant Soil 275:247–260
Weih M (2004) Intensive short rotation forestry in boreal climates: present and future perspectives. Can J Forest Res 34:1369–1378. https://doi.org/10.1139/x04-090
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Estonian Research Council grants PRG1007, PRG1434, PSG600, and PSG730; by the European Regional Development Fund and the programme Mobilitas Pluss (MOBTP168); by the European Commission’s Horizon 2020 programme under grant agreement no. 101000406 (project ONEforest) and the KAW foundation (KAW 2018.0259).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
R.L, A.T, A.V and H.T designed the study. A.V, R.L and R.S preformed field work and data collection. R.L and A.T analysed the data. The draft of the manuscript was written by all authors. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conficts of interest/Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Rémi Cardinael.
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Lutter, R., Tullus, A., Vares, A. et al. Twenty years of afforestation of former agricultural lands with silver birch plantations affects vertical distribution of SOC and macronutrients in the topsoil layer. Plant Soil 482, 385–400 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-022-05695-9
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-022-05695-9