Abstract
Logotherapy, grounded in the insights of Viktor Frankl, suggests that meaning-making and the sense of purpose in life is central to healthy human functioning. This thesis was tested among a sample of 156 Catholic priests and religious sisters in Italy; their healthy human functioning was assessed through the two indices of positive affect (satisfaction in ministry) and negative affect (emotional exhaustion in ministry) proposed by the Francis Burnout Inventory. After controlling for personal factors (age and sex) and for psychological factors (emotionality and extraversion/introversion), the data demonstrated that higher scores on the Purpose in Life Scale were associated with both higher scores on the Satisfaction in Ministry Scale and lower scores on the Scale of Emotional Exhaustion in Ministry. These findings suggest that professional burnout and poor work-related psychological health among priests and religious sisters may, at least in part, be attributed to a poor sense of purpose in life. In light of this empirical evidence, therapeutic techniques developed by logotherapy may be relevant to addressing the problem of professional burnout and poor work-related psychological health among Catholic priests and religious sisters.
Similar content being viewed by others
Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.
The Salesian Pontifical University in Rome has a long tradition of research and application within the field of logotherapy. The aim of the present study is to draw on this background in order to test the relevance of the principles of logotherapy for understanding the work-related psychological health of Catholic priests and religious sisters engaged in pastoral ministries. The theoretical argument of this study is developed in four steps. The first step clarifies and critiques the basic principles of logotherapy. The second step establishes the centrality of measures of purpose in life in operationalising and testing aspects of logotherapy and introduces the measure of purpose in life employed in the empirical investigation. The third step discusses the operationalisation of clergy work-related psychological health and introduces the measure of work-related psychological health employed in the empirical investigation. The fourth step discusses the rationale for introducing both personal and psychological factors as control variables.
Logotherapy and purpose in life
The constructs of purpose in life and meaning in life have received increasing attention in recent years, within the developing field of positive psychology (Csikszentmihalyi, 1999; Diener, 1994, 2000; Emmons, 2003; Ryan & Deci, 2000). According to Wong (2012), meaning in life ‘represents not only a primary intrinsic motivation for life expansion but also a powerful capacity for personal transformation’ (p. 619). Meaning in life is shaped differently according to the specific situations in the lives of individual people. Therefore, meaning in life is not conceptualized in the same way for everybody, but meaning is unique for each person. People have to discover the meaning of their particular situations for themselves.
Viktor Frankl, an Austrian psychiatrist and the founder of logotherapy, was one of those who have developed a theory of personality that deals explicitly with the role that meaning plays in human development. According to Frankl, ‘What matters, therefore, is not the meaning of life in general, but rather the specific meaning of a person’s life at a given moment’ (Frankl, 1985, p. 171). Logotherapy builds on Frankl’s work to shape a humanistic-existential approach of particular practical benefit when individuals are concerned with promoting and sustaining a sense of meaning in their lives (Frankl, 1969; Guttmann, 1996; Lukas & Hirsch, 2002).
While some people see meaning in only some of their experiences, other people experience their entire lives as full of meaning. But what makes an experience meaningful, and what gives meaning to the whole of life? These questions are of particular importance at a time when a sense of meaningless, when feelings of emptiness, and when feelings of boredom are identified as core features of a number of psychiatric syndromes, including depression and dissociative disorders (Levin, 1987). Indeed, such alienation seems to be a component of many psychological dysfunctions, and one that is addressed as existential neurosis, or a sense of vacuum that characterises the lives of many people (Maddi, 1967).
Frankl (1967, 1969, 1985, 2004) maintains that people have the ability to overcome the constraints of external circumstances and of their own psychological and physical limitations. By doing so they can discover purpose in life and meaning in life, a new dimension to their existence. Frankl’s fundamental insight is that the ‘will to meaning’ resources strength to face the difficult situations. It is this ‘will to meaning’ that makes sense of and gives value to the lives that individuals live.
Frankl argues that individuals can take a stand against the variety of limiting conditions that impact their lives. In other words, these limiting conditions do not determine the response of individuals to any life situation. Since meaning in life varies from one person to another and from one situation to another, meaning in life is as unique as the situations that individuals encounter in their lives (Frankl, 1969).
Empirical studies have demonstrated a strong relationship between psychological and physical well-being and meaning in life or purpose in life. Meaning in life or purpose in life is associated with a wide range of positive outcomes, such as stable mood, less psychological distress, more proactive and sociable behavior, and favorable attitudes toward life and the self (Melton & Schulenberg, 2008; Reker, 1994; Ryff, 1989; Ryff & Singer, 1998; Savolaine & Granello, 2002; Zika & Chamberlain, 1992). Meaning in life or purpose in life are linked with self-transcendence values, good social adaptation, and clear life goals (Park & Folkman, 1997; Yalom, 1980). On the other hand, the absence of meaning in life or purpose in life are linked with risk factors for mental health such as depression, anxiety (Debats et al., 1993), and mental disorders (Crumbaugh & Maholick, 1964; Frankl, 2004). A lack of meaning in life or purpose in life is linked with mental retardation and developmental disabilities (Hingsburger, 1990; Schulenberg, 2003), problems associated with aging (Kimble, 2000a), difficulties within family relationships (Crumbaugh & Henrion, 2004; Winters, 2002), and work-related issues (Pattakos, 2004).
Measures of purpose in life
The growing empirical basis underlying logotherapy (Schulenberg, 2004) has been facilitated by a variety of tools introduced to quantify and study the construct meaning in life or purpose in life (Batthyany & Guttmann, 2006). The most influential of these instruments is the Purpose in Life Test (PILT) developed by Crumbaugh and Maholick (1964, 1969). This is a thoroughly researched measure (Guttmann, 1996; Hutzell, 1988), working within the framework proposed by logotherapy (Schulenberg & Melton, 2010).
The PILT was designed with three parts: Part A comprises 20 items using a seven-point Likert-type scale; Part B comprises 13 incomplete sentences; and Part C requests the respondent to compose a paragraph. In quantitative studies, the focus tends to be on Part A, since these data can easily be examined psychometrically. Higher scores reflect good levels of meaning in life or purpose in life. Acceptable psychometric properties have been reported for the PILT across a range of studies (Reker, 2000). Good convergent validity has been established with measures of well-being and distress, together with good internal consistency reliability (e.g., α = .91; Zika & Chamberlain, 1992). Significant associations have been shown between scores recorded in the PILT and social attitudes, depression, and subjective well-being (Hutzell, 1988; Melton & Schulenberg, 2008; Robak & Griffin, 2000; Schulenberg, 2004).
Robbins and Francis (2000) introduced the Purpose in Life Scale (PILS) as an alternative measure of purpose in life that intentionally differed from the PILT in two ways. First, the PILS was designed to assess a much more tightly focused notion of purpose in life. Second, the PILS comprises 12 Likert-type items rated on the conventional 5-point scale ranging from agree strongly (5) through not certain (3) to disagree strongly (1). In the foundation study, conducted among 517 first-year undergraduate students, Robbins and Francis (2000) reported an alpha coefficient (Cronbach, 1951) of .90, with the correlations between each item and the sum of the other items varying between .41 and .76, demonstrating good internal consistency reliability. Further evidence on the psychometric properties have been provided by Francis et al. (2010), Sillick and Cathcart (2014), Poteat et al. (2015), Crea (2016), Chow (2017), and Francis et al. (2017).
Work-related psychological health
The Maslach Burnout Inventory proposed by Maslach and Jackson (1986) offers a well-established conceptualisation and operationalisation of work-related psychological health. The Maslach Burnout Inventory assesses work-related psychological health across three domains that characterise professional burnout by high scores of emotional exhaustion, high scores of depersonalisation, and low scores of personal accomplishment. The key theoretical problem posed by the Maslach operationalisation of burnout concerns giving an account of the relationship between the three components (emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation, and lack of personal accomplishment). According to Maslach (2003) this relationship is seen in terms of a sequential progression, whereby emotional exhaustion leads to depersonalisation, and depersonalisation leads to lack of personal accomplishment.
Challenging the adequacy of the empirical foundations for this sequential model and recognising the apparent independence of personal accomplishment from the other two components (emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation), Francis et al. (2005) revisited the insights of the classic notion of ‘balanced affect’, as proposed by Bradburn (1969), in order to give an alternative account of burnout and of poor work-related psychological health. Employing the notion of balanced affect, they proposed a model of work-related psychological health whereby positive affect and negative affect operate as two separate continua, rather than as opposite ends of a single continuum. According to this model, it is conceivable that individuals may experience at one and the same time high levels of positive affect and high levels of negative affect. According to this model of balanced affect, poor work-related psychological health and burnout occur when high levels of negative affect coincide with low levels of positive affect.
Francis et al. (2005) tested this balanced affect approach to work-related psychological health and burnout in an international study conducted among 6,680 clergy serving in Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. For research designed specifically among clergy, they operationalised the notion of negative affect as emotional exhaustion (measured by the Scale of Emotional Exhaustion in Ministry: SEEM), and the notion of positive affect as ministry satisfaction (measured by the Satisfaction in Ministry Scale: SIMS). Put together, these two 11-item scales form the Francis Burnout Inventory (FBI).
The internal consistency reliability and construct validity of the two component scales of the Francis Burnout Inventory were tested and supported in a study among 744 clergy serving in The Presbyterian Church (USA) by Francis et al. (2011). This study has tested and supported the balanced affect model of work-related psychological health by demonstrating how high levels of positive affect serve to offset high levels of negative affect in order to maintain a form of psychological equilibrium. Although a relatively new measure, the Francis Burnout Inventory has already been included in a number of studies concerning clergy work-related psychological health, including work reported by Francis et al. (2008, 2009, 2012, 2013a, b, c, 2015, 2019, 2021), Robbins and Francis (2010, 2014), Brewster et al. (2011), Robbins et al. (2012), Barnard and Curry (2012), Randall (2013a, b, 2015), Sterland (2015), Durkee-Lloyd (2016), and Francis and Crea (2018, 2021).
Introducing control variables
Studies exploring individual differences in work-related psychological health and burnout among clergy have consistently drawn attention to the importance of key personal and psychological factors (Francis, 2018). Among personal factors, age emerges as the most important. Older clergy are less likely than younger clergy to report high levels of emotional exhaustion, either as the consequence of an aging effect (older clergy may have acquired better skills at managing psychological resources) or of a cohort effect (younger clergy experiencing high levels of emotional exhaustion may have exited from active ministry). While sex differences are less consistently reported, sex nonetheless remains a personal factor of significance. Among psychological factors, neuroticism (or high emotionality) and introversion emerge as the most important. Clergy recording high scores on the measure of neuroticism (or emotionality) and low scores on extraversion are more likely to report high levels of emotional exhaustion (see, for example, Francis et al., 2004, 2008, 2009, 2013c; Francis & Rutledge, 2000; Randall 2007; Rutledge & Francis, 2004; Turton & Francis, 2007). It is for these reasons that the present study controls for personal factors (age and sex) and for psychological factors (extraversion and emotionality) before exploring the effects of purpose in life on measures of work-related psychological health.
Research question
Against this background, the present study was designed to test the two hypotheses that, after controlling for personal factors (age and sex) and for psychological factors (emotionality and extraversion), there is a positive association between purpose in life scores and scores of satisfaction in ministry and a negative association between purpose in life scores and scores of emotional exhaustion in ministry.
Method
Procedure
In the context of programmes operated in Rome for Catholic priests and religious sisters (who were broadly engaged in religious ministry within the community) on the topic of personality and spirituality, participants were invited to complete a questionnaire covering issues relevant to the programme. Participation in the study was voluntary, and responses to the questionnaire were confidential and anonymous. Full data were provided by 156 participants (61 women and 95 men).
Participants
The mean age of the 61 religious sisters was 50.6 years (SD = 13.5), with a range between 24 and 74. The mean age of the 95 priests was 55.8 years (SD = 15.0), with a range between 27 and 86. Of the total participants, 33 were non-graduates and 123 were graduates, among whom 20 held doctoral-level qualifications.
Measures
Psychological factors were assessed by the Francis Psychological Type and Emotional Temperament Scales (FPTETS) developed from the instrument originally proposed by Francis (2005). This 50-item instrument comprises five sets of 10 forced-choice items related to emotionality and to each of the four components of psychological type: orientation (extraversion or introversion), perceiving process (sensing or intuition), judging process (thinking or feeling), and attitude toward the outer world (judging or perceiving). A number of studies have demonstrated this instrument to function well in church-related contexts. For example, Francis et al. (2018) reported alpha coefficients of .83 for the extraversion or introversion scale, .79 for the sensing or intuition scale, .76 for the thinking or feeling scale, and .83 for the attitude toward the outer world scale. Participants were presented each pair of characteristics and asked to ‘check the box next to that characteristic which is closer to the real you, even if you feel both characteristics apply to you. Tick the characteristics that reflect the real you, even if other people see you differently.’ The Italian translation of this instrument originated within the Salesian Pontifical University, employing the conventional practice of translation and back translation. Only the extraversion and emotionality scales were employed in the present analysis. The translated instrument achieved acceptable alpha coefficients (Francis & Crea, 2016).
Work-related psychological health was assessed by the two scales proposed by the Francis Burnout Inventory (FBI: Francis et al., 2005). This 22-item instrument is comprised of the Scale of Emotional Exhaustion in Ministry (SEEM) and the Satisfaction in Ministry Scale (SIMS). Each item is assessed on a 5-point scale ranging from agree strongly (5) to disagree strongly (1). The Italian translation achieved alpha coefficients of .79 for SIMS and .81 for SEEM (Francis & Crea, 2015).
Purpose in life was assessed by the Purpose in Life Scale (PILS) developed by Robbins and Francis (2000), a twelve-item instrument designed to assess a unidimensional construct. For example, a core item reads, ‘My personal existence is full of purpose’. Each item is assessed on a 5-point scale ranging from agree strongly (5) to disagree strongly (1). The Italian translation achieved an alpha coefficient of .90 (Crea, 2016).
Data analysis
The data were analysed by means of the SPSS statistical package using the reliability, correlation, factor, and regression routines.
Results and discussion
Table 1 presents the alpha coefficients, means, and standard deviations for the five scales employed in the present study, namely, the Scale of Emotional Exhaustion in Ministry, the Satisfaction in Ministry Scale, the Purpose in Life Scale, the Extraversion Scale, and the Emotionality Scale. All five scales reported Cronbach’s (1951) alpha coefficients in excess of .70. Table 2 presents the bivariate correlation coefficients between each pairing of these five scales and between each of the five scales and both age and sex. Four features of the correlation matrix merit commentary. First, sex is significantly associated with emotionality: women recorded higher scores than men on the Emotionality Scale. This finding is consistent with the consensus from studies employing other indices of emotionality or neuroticism (see, for example, Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975). No significant differences, however, were recorded between men and women on the Extraversion Scale, the Purpose in Life Scale, the Scale of Emotional Exhaustion in Ministry, or the Satisfaction in Ministry Scale. Second, age is significantly associated with emotional exhaustion in ministry: younger participants recorded higher scores than older participants on the Scale of Emotional Exhaustion in Ministry. This finding is consistent with earlier studies (see, for example, Francis, 2018), although it remains unclear whether this finding reflects older priests and religious learning to manage emotional exhaustion more effectively or reflects those younger priests and religious experiencing higher levels of emotional exhaustion having exited from their vocation. No significant correlations, however, were recorded between age and scores recorded on the Satisfaction in Ministry Scale, the Purpose in Life Scale, the Extraversion Scale, or the Emotionality Scale. Third, no significant correlations were reported between the Extraversion Scale and any of the other four scales. On the other hand, scores recorded on the Emotionality Scale were significantly correlated with emotional exhaustion, satisfaction in ministry, and purpose in life: participants recording high scores on the Emotionality Scale also recorded higher scores on the Scale of Emotional Exhaustion in Ministry, lower scores on the Satisfaction in Ministry Scale, and lower scores on the Purpose in Life Scale. Fourth, scores recorded on the Purpose in Life Scale were highly correlated both with scores recorded on the Scale of Emotional Exhaustion in Ministry (negatively) and with scores recorded on the Satisfaction in Ministry Scale (positively).
Table 3 builds on the bivariate correlations presented in Table 2 to construct two regression models. Taking emotional exhaustion in ministry and satisfaction in ministry as two separate dependent variables, these regression models have entered the following variables in fixed order: two personal factors (sex and age), two psychological factors (extraversion and emotionality), and purpose in life as the final factor. Both models demonstrate that, after taking the personal and personality variables into account, purpose in life scores provide strong prediction of lower levels of emotional exhaustion and higher levels of satisfaction in ministry. Additionally, the beta weights demonstrate that higher levels of emotional exhaustion are associated with higher emotionality scores and being younger and that higher levels of satisfaction in ministry are associated with lower emotionality scores and being male.
Conclusions
The present study was designed to test the two hypotheses that, after controlling for personal factors (age and sex) and for psychological factors (emotionality and extraversion), there is a positive association between purpose in life scores and scores of satisfaction in ministry and a negative association between purpose in life scores and scores of emotional exhaustion in ministry. These two hypotheses were tested among a sample of 156 Catholic priests and religious sisters in Italy who completed the Purpose in Life Scale (Robbins & Francis, 2000); the two measures that comprise the Francis Burnout Inventory, that is, the Satisfaction in Ministry Scale and the Scale of Emotional Exhaustion in Ministry (Francis et al., 2005); and the Francis Psychological Type and Emotional Temperament Scales developed from the instrument proposed by Francis (2005). These data supported both hypotheses, demonstrating that Catholic priests and religious sisters in Italy experienced high scores of purpose in life as protection against professional burnout.
These findings are of considerable theoretical interest in light of the way in which they link two somewhat different research domains that concern well-being in two distinct fields: work-related psychological well-being, and personal psychological well-being. The question of work-related psychological well-being (and professional burnout) among clergy and religious has tended to focus attention on aspects of the work-related context and to seek solutions by addressing professional or structural matters. By drawing on a core measure from the domain of personal psychological well-being (purpose in life), the present study has refocused attention on the personal life of the religious professional and suggested that solutions to poor work-related psychological well-being may be sought by addressing personal and individual matters.
The findings are also of considerable practical significance for those holding responsibility for the work-related psychological health of clergy and religious professionals and for those working in the field of clergy well-being and support. The findings offer specific empirical support for the applications of the therapeutic approaches associated with logotherapy among clergy and religious professionals, as suggested for example by Kimble (2000b) in his discussion of ‘logotherapy and pastoral counselling’ and by Thannickal (2005) in his discussion of ‘logotherapy and Catholic pastoral action’.
The limitation with the present study is that the findings are based on a relatively small sample (95 priests and 61 religious sisters) associated with one church tradition (Catholic) and serving in one national context (Italy). These are limitations that can be addressed by the systematic replication and extension of the present sample among other samples of clergy and religious professionals serving in other national contexts and associated with other church traditions.
References
Barnard, L. K., & Curry, J. F. (2012). The relationship of clergy burnout to self-compassion and other personality dimensions. Pastoral Psychology, 61, 149–163. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11089-011-0377-0
Batthyany, A., & Guttmann, D. (Eds.). (2006). Empirical research in logotherapy and meaning-oriented psychotherapy: An annotated bibliography. Phoenix, AZ: Zeig, Tucker & Theisen
Bradburn, N. M. (1969). The structure of psychological well-being. Chicago, IL: Aldine. doi.https://doi.org/10.1037/t10756-000
Brewster, C. E., Francis, L. J., & Robbins, M. (2011). Maintaining a public ministry in rural England: Work-related psychological health and psychological type among Anglican clergy serving in multi-church benefices. In H. G. Ziebertz, & L. J. Francis (Eds.), The Public Significance of Religion (pp. 241–265). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004207066.i-495.90
Chow, H. P. H. (2017). A time to be born and a time to die. Exploring the determinants of death anxiety among university students in a western Canadian city.Death Studies, 41,345–352. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481187.2017.1279240
Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16, 297–334. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02310555
Crea, G. (2016). The psychometric properties of the Italian translation of the Purpose in Life Scale (PILS) in Italy among a sample of Italian adults. Mental Health, Religion and Culture, 19, 858–867. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2016.1277988
Crumbaugh, J. C., & Henrion, R. (2004). The power of meaningful intimacy: Key to successful relationships. Philadelphia, PA: Xlibris Corp
Crumbaugh, J. C., & Maholick, L. T. (1964). An experimental study in existentialism: The psychometric approach to Frankl’s concept of noogenic neurosis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 20, 200–207. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-4679(196404)20:2-200::AID-JCLP2270200203-3.0.CO;2-U
Crumbaugh, J. C., & Maholick, L. T. (1969). Manual of Instructions for the Purpose-in-Life Test. Munster, IN: Psychometric Affiliates. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.10.821
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1999). If we are so rich, why aren’t we happy? American Psychologist, 54, 821–827. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.10.821
Debats, D. L., van der Lubbe, P. M., & Wezeman, F. R. A. (1993). On the psychometric properties of the Life Regard Index (LRI): A measure of meaningful life. Personality and Individual Differences, 14, 337–345. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(93)90132-M
Diener, E. (1994). Assessing subjective well-being: Progress and opportunities. Social Indicators Research, 31, 103–157. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01207052
Diener, E. (2000). Subjective well-being: The science of happiness, and a proposal for a national index. American Psychologist, 55, 34–43. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.34
Durkee-Lloyd, J. (2016). The relationship between work-related psychological health and psychological type among Canadian Baptist clergy: A research report. Journal of Empirical Theology, 29, 201–211. https://doi.org/10.1163/15709256-12341343
Emmons, R. A. (2003). Personal goals, life meaning, and virtue: Wellsprings of a positive life. In L. M. Keyes, & J. Haidt (Eds.), Flourishing: A positive psychology and the life well-lived (pp. 105–128). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10594-005
Eysenck, H. J., & Eysenck, S. B. G. (1975). Manual of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (adult and junior). London, England: Hodder and Stoughton. https://doi.org/10.1037/t05462-000
Francis, L. J. (2005). Faith and psychology: Personality, religion and the individual. London, England: Darton, Longman and Todd
Francis, L. J. (2018). Healthy leadership: The science of clergy work-related psychological health. In R. Brouwer (Ed.), The future of lived religious leadership (pp. 116–134). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: VU University Press
Francis, L. J., & Crea, G. (2015). Work-related psychological health and psychological type: A study among Catholic priests in Italy. Mental Health, Religion and Culture, 18, 593–604. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2014.963996
Francis, L. J., & Crea, G. (2016). Comparing the psychological type profile of churchgoers and non-churchgoers in Italy. Comprehensive Psychology, 5, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1177/2165222816652510
Francis, L. J., & Crea, G. (2018). Happiness matters: Exploring the linkages between personality, personal happiness and work-related psychological health among priests and sisters in Italy. Pastoral Psychology, 67, 17–32. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11089-017-0791-z
Francis, L. J., & Crea, G. (2021). Psychological predictors of professional burnout among priests and religious sisters in Italy: The dark triad versus the bright trinity? Pastoral Psychology, 70, 399–418. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11089-021-00951-8
Francis, L. J., Emslie, N. J., & Payne, V. J. (2019). The effect of emotional intelligence on work-related psychological health among Anglican clergy in Wales. Journal of Religion and Health, 58, 1631–1647. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-019-00798-7
Francis, L. J., Gubb, S., & Robbins, M. (2012). Work-related psychological health and psychological type among lead elders within the Newfrontiers network of churches in the United Kingdom. Journal of Prevention and Intervention in the Community, 40, 233–245. https://doi.org/10.1080/10852352.2012.680422
Francis, L. J., Jewell, A., & Robbins, M. (2010). The relationship between religious orientation personality and purpose in life among an older Methodist sample. Mental Health, Religion and Culture, 13, 777–791. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674670802360907
Francis, L. J., Kaldor, P., Robbins, M., & Castle, K. (2005). Happy but exhausted? Work-related psychological health among clergy. Pastoral Sciences, 24, 101–120
Francis, L. J., Laycock, P., & Brewster, C. (2015). The burdens of rural ministry: Identifying and exploring the correlates of five causes of stress among rural Anglican clergy serving in multi-parish benefices. Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, 26, 218–236. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004299436_015
Francis, L. J., Louden, S. H., & Rutledge, C. J. F. (2004). Burnout among Roman Catholic parochial clergy in England and Wales: Myth or reality? Review of Religious Research, 46, 5–19. https://doi.org/10.2307/3512249
Francis, L. J., Payne, V. J., & Emslie, N. (2018). The construct validity of the Schutte Emotional Intelligence Scale in light of psychological type theory: A study among Anglican clergy. Mental Health, Religion and Culture, 21, 945–959. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2018.1519694
Francis, L. J., Payne, V. J., & Robbins, M. (2013c). Psychological type and susceptibility to burnout: A study among Anglican clergymen in Wales. In B. R. Doolittle (Ed.), Psychology of Burnout: New research (pp. 179–192). New York, NY: Nova Science. https://doi.org/10.1037/e591202013-001
Francis, L. J., Robbins, M., Kaldor, K., & Castle, K. (2009). Psychological type and work-related psychological health among clergy in Australia, England and New Zealand. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 28, 200–212
Francis, L. J., Robbins, M., & Wulff, K. (2013a). Assessing the effectiveness of support strategies in reducing professional burnout among clergy serving in the Presbyterian Church (USA). Practical Theology, 6, 319–331. https://doi.org/10.1179/1756073X13Z.00000000021
Francis, L. J., Robbins, M., & Wulff, K. (2013b). Are clergy serving yoked congregations under greater stress? A study among clergy serving in the Presbyterian Church (USA). Stress and Health, 29, 113–116. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2434
Francis, L. J., & Rutledge, C. J. F. (2000). Are rural clergy in the Church of England under greater stress? A study in empirical theology. Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, 11, 173–191. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004493278_012
Francis, L. J., Village, A., & Parker, S. G. (2017). Exploring the trajectory of personal, moral and spiritual values of 16- to 18-year-old students taking religious studies at A level in the UK. Journal of Beliefs and Values, 38,18–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/13617672.2016.1232567
Francis, L. J., Village, A., & Payne, V. J. (2021). Introducing the Francis Owl-Lark Indices (FOLI): Assessing the implications of diurnal activity patterns for clergy work-related psychological health. Mental Health, Religion and Culture, 24(8), 780–795. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2021.1871595
Francis, L. J., Village, A., Robbins, M., & Wulff, K. (2011). Work-related psychological health among clergy serving in the Presbyterian Church (USA): Testing the idea of balanced affect. Review of Religious Research, 53, 9–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13644-011-0003-8
Francis, L. J., Wulff, K., & Robbins, M. (2008). The relationship between work-related psychological health and psychological type among clergy serving in the Presbyterian Church (USA). Journal of Empirical Theology, 21, 166–182. https://doi.org/10.1163/157092508X349854
Frankl, V. E. (1967). Psychotherapy and existentialism. New York, NY: Washington Square Press. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0087982
Frankl, V. E. (1969). The will to meaning: Foundations and applications of logotherapy. New York, NY: New American Library
Frankl, V. E. (1985). Man’s search for meaning. New York, NY: Washington Square Press
Frankl, V. E. (2004). The doctor and the soul: From psychotherapy to logotherapy. London, England: Souvenir
Guttmann, D. (1996). Logotherapy for the helping professional: Meaningful social work. New York, NY: Springer
Hingsburger, D. (1990). Relevance of meaning for the developmentally handicapped. International Forum for Logotherapy, 13, 107–111
Hutzell, R. R. (1988). A review of the Purpose in Life Test. International Forum for Logotherapy, 11, 89–101
Kimble, M. A. (Ed.). (2000a). Viktor Frankl’s contribution to spirituality and aging. New York, NY: Haworth Pastoral Press
Kimble, M. A. (2000b). Logotherapy and pastoral counselling. Journal of Religious Gerontology, 11, 43–57. https://doi.org/10.1300/J078v11n03_05
Levin, D. M. (Ed.). (1987). Pathologies of the modern self. New York: New York University Press
Lukas, E., & Hirsch, B. Z. (2002). Logotherapy. In F. W., Kaslow, R. F. Massey, & S. D. Massey (Eds.), Comprehensive handbook of psychotherapy: Vol 3, interpersonal/humanistic/existential. (pp. 333–356). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons
Maddi, S. R. (1967). The existential neurosis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 72, 311–325. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0020103
Maslach, C. (2003). Burnout: The cost of coping. Cambridge, MA: Malor Books
Maslach, C., & Jackson, S. (1986). The Maslach Burnout Inventory (2nd ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press
Melton, A. M. A., & Schulenberg, S. E. (2008). On the measurement of meaning: Logotherapy’s empirical contributions to humanistic psychology. Humanistic Psychologist, 36, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/08873260701828870
Park, C. L., & Folkman, S. (1997). Meaning in the context of stress and coping. Review of General Psychology, 30, 115–144. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.1.2.115
Pattakos, A. (2004). Prisoners of our thoughts: Viktor Frankl’s principles at work. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler
Poteat, V. P., Yoshikawa, H., Calzo, J. P., Gray, M. L., DiGiovanni, C. D., Lipkin, A., & Shaw, M. P. (2015). Contextualizing gay-straight alliances: Student, advisor, and structural factors related to positive youth development among members. Child Development, 86, 176–193. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12289
Randall, K. (2007). Examining the relationship between burnout and age among Anglican clergy in England and Wales. Mental Health, Religion and Culture, 10, 39–46. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674670601012303
Randall, K. (2013a). Clergy burnout: Two different measures. Pastoral Psychology, 62, 333–341. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11089-012-0506-4
Randall, K. (2013b). Examining thoughts about leaving the ministry among Anglican clergy in England and Wales: Demographic, churchmanship, personality and work-related psychological health factors. Practical Theology, 6, 178–189. https://doi.org/10.1179/1756073X13Z.0000000005
Randall, K. (2015). Emotional intelligence and clergy work-related psychological health among Anglican clergy in England and Wales. Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, 26, 291–301. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004299436_019
Reker, G. T. (1994). Logotheory and logotherapy: Challenges, opportunities, and some empirical findings. International Forum for Logotherapy, 17, 47–55
Reker, G. T. (2000). Theoretical perspective, dimensions, and measurement of existential meaning. In G. T. Recker & K. Chamberlain (Eds.). Exploring existential meaning: Optimizing human development across the life span (pp.39–55). Thousand Oaks, CA:Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452233703.n4
Robak, R. W., & Griffin, P. W. (2000). Purpose in life: What is its relationship to happiness, depression, and grieving? North American Journal of Psychology, 2, 113–120
Robbins, M., & Francis, L. J. (2000). Religion, personality and wellbeing: The relationship between church attendance and purpose in life among undergraduates attending an Anglican College in Wales. Journal of Research in Christian Education, 9, 223–238. https://doi.org/10.1080/10656210009484908
Robbins, M., & Francis, L. J. (2010). Work-related psychological health among Church of England clergywomen: Individual differences and psychological type. Review of Religious Research, 52, 57–71
Robbins, M., & Francis, L. J. (2014). Taking responsibility for multiple churches: A study in burnout among Anglican clergywomen in England. Journal of Empirical Theology, 27, 261–280. https://doi.org/10.1163/15709256-12341310
Robbins, M., Francis, L. J., & Powell, R. (2012). Work-related psychological health among clergywomen in Australia. Mental Health, Religion and Culture, 15, 933–944. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2012.698044
Rutledge, C. J. F., & Francis, L. J. (2004). Burnout among male Anglican parochial clergy in England: Testing a modified form of the Maslach Burnout Inventory. Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, 15, 71–93. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789047406563_009
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 5, 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68
Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 1069–1081. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1069
Ryff, C. D., & Singer, B. (1998). The role of purpose in life and personal growth in positive human health. In P. T. P. Wong, & P. S. Fry (Eds.), The human quest for meaning: A handbook of psychological research and clinical applications (pp. 213–235). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum
Savolaine, J., & Granello, P. F. (2002). The function of meaning and purpose for individual wellness. Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education and Development, 41, 178–189. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2164-490X.2002.tb00141.x
Schulenberg, S. E. (2003). Empirical research and logotherapy. Psychological Reports, 93, 307–319. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.2003.93.1.307
Schulenberg, S. E. (2004). A psychometric investigation of logotherapy measures and the Outcome Questionnaire (OQ-45.2). North American Journal of Psychology, 6, 477–492
Schulenberg, S. E., & Melton, A. M. A. (2010). A confirmatory factor analytic evaluation of the Purpose in Life Test: Preliminary psychometric support for a replicable two-factor model. Journal of Happiness Studies, 11, 95–111. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-008-9124-3
Sillick, W. J., & Cathcart, S. (2014). The relationship between religious orientation and happiness: The mediating role of purpose in life. Mental Health, Religion and Culture, 17, 494–507. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2013.852165
Sterland, S. (2015). Workaholism and burnout in Australian church workers. Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, 26, 250–265. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004299436_017
Thannickal, J. (2005). Logotherapy and Catholic pastoral action. International Forum for Logotherapy, 28, 15–21
Turton, D. W., & Francis, L. J. (2007). The relationship between attitude toward prayer and professional burnout among Anglican parochial clergy in England: Are praying clergy healthier clergy? Mental Health, Religion and Culture, 10, 61–74. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674670601012246
Winters, M. R. (2002). A logotherapeutic treatment for relationship therapy: Early explorations. International Forum for Logotherapy, 25, 11–23
Wong, T. P. (Ed.). (2012). (Ed.). The human quest for meaning: Theories, research, and applications. New York, NY: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203146286
Yalom, I. D. (1980). Existential psychotherapy. New York, NY: Basic
Zika, S., & Chamberlain, K. (1992). On the relation between meaning in life and psychological well-being. British Journal of Psychology, 83, 133–145. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1992.tb02429.x
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
About this article
Cite this article
Crea, G., Francis, L.J. Purpose in Life as Protection Against Professional Burnout Among Catholic Priests and Religious in Italy: Testing the Insights of Logotherapy. Pastoral Psychol 71, 471–483 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11089-022-01009-z
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11089-022-01009-z