Abstract
This paper presents a novel design of an optical electro-absorption modulator based on a hybrid plasmonic structure with a graphene layer on the generic InP platform. Graphene-based optical modulators have the potential to revolutionize the field of optical communications. They enable high-speed data transfer and facilitate advancements in quantum computing. Developing a highly compact modulator on the InP platform represents a significant objective for photonics researchers aiming to achieve large-scale photonic integration technology. In the proposed design, a metal layer on top of a ridge waveguide creates a hybrid plasmonic structure. At the same time, light modulation is accomplished by applying a bias voltage to the graphene layer. By manipulating the optical absorption properties through changes in the Fermi level of the graphene layer, calculations demonstrate a 3 dB bandwidth exceeding 70 GHz at λ = 1.55 μm for a 1 µm length. Furthermore, the impact of metal and SiO2 dielectric layer thicknesses and chemical potential on the real part of the effective index, optical absorption, 3 dB bandwidth, extinction ratio, and insertion loss are quantitatively determined.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Availability of data and material
The corresponding author’s data supporting this study's findings are available upon reasonable request.
References
Alden Mostaan, S.M., Saghaei, H.: A tunable broadband graphene-based metamaterial absorber in the far-infrared region. Opt. Quantum Electron. 53, 96 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11082-021-02744-y
Ando, T., Zheng, Y., Suzuura, H.: Dynamical conductivity and zero-mode anomaly in honeycomb lattices. J. Phys. Soc. Jpn. 71, 1318–1324 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1143/JPSJ.71.1318
Ansell, D., Radko, I.P., Han, Z., Rodriguez, F.J., Bozhevolnyi, S.I., Grigorenko, A.N.: Hybrid graphene plasmonic waveguide modulators. Nat. Commun. 6, 2–7 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms9846
Bao, Q., Loh, K.P.: Graphene photonics, plasmonics, and broadband optoelectronic devices. ACS Nano 6, 3677–3694 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1021/nn300989g
Baqir, M.A., Farmani, A., Fatima, T., Raza, M.R., Shaukat, S.F., Mir, A.: Nanoscale, tunable, and highly sensitive biosensor utilizing hyperbolic metamaterials in the near-infrared range. Appl. Opt. 57, 9447–9454 (2018)
Baqir, M.A., Choudhury, P.K., Farmani, A., Younas, T., Arshad, J., Mir, A., Karimi, S.: Tunable plasmon induced transparency in graphene and hyperbolic metamaterial-based structure. IEEE Photonics J. 11, 1–10 (2019)
Baqir, M.A., Farmani, A., Raza, M., Akhtar, M.N., Hussain, A.: Engineering of metallic nanorod-based hyperbolic metamaterials for broadband applications operating in the infrared regime. Appl. Nanosci. 11, 229–240 (2021)
Bijlani, B., Luo, Y., Feng, D., Liao, S., Luff, B.J., Liang, H., Asghari, M., Cunningham, J., Shafiiha, R., Fong, J., Krishnamoorthy, A.V.: High speed GeSi electro-absorption modulator at 1550 nm wavelength on SOI waveguide. Opt. Express 20, 22224–22232 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.20.022224
Bogaerts, W., Barklund, A., Yu, H., Li, J., Alloatti, L., Korn, D., Palmer, R., Fedeli, J., Wieland, J., Leuthold, J., Dinu, R., Koos, C., Dumon, P., Fournier, M., Freude, W., Baets, R., Hillerkuss, D.: 42.7 Gbit/s electro-optic modulator in silicon technology. Opt. Express 19, 11841–11851 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.19.011841
Bonaccorso, F., Sun, Z., Hasan, T., Ferrari, A.C.: Graphene photonics and optoelectronics. Nat. Photonics 4, 611–622 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1038/nphoton.2010.186
Calafell, I.A., Cox, J.D., Radonjić, M., Saavedra, J.R.M., García de Abajo, F.J., Rozema, L.A., Walther, P.: Quantum computing with graphene plasmons. NPJ Quantum Inf. 5, 37 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41534-019-0150-2
Chen, Z., Appenzeller, J.: Mobility extraction and quantum capacitance impact in high performance graphene field-effect transistor devices (2008)
Dawlaty, J.M., Shivaraman, S., Strait, J., George, P., Chandrashekhar, M., Rana, F., Spencer, M.G., Veksler, D., Chen, Y.: Measurement of the optical absorption spectra of epitaxial graphene from terahertz to visible. Appl. Phys. Lett. 93, 131905 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.2990753
Dereux, A., Gosciniak, J., Kjelstrup-Hansen, J., Volkov, V.S., Markey, L., Andersen, T.B., Bozhevolnyi, S.I.: Thermo-optic control of dielectric-loaded plasmonic waveguide components. Opt. Express 18, 1207–1216 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.18.001207
Dereux, A., Gosciniak, J., Markey, L., Bozhevolnyi, S.I.: Efficient thermo-optically controlled Mach-Zhender interferometers using dielectric-loaded plasmonic waveguides. Opt. Express 20, 16300–16309 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.20.016300
Didari-Bader, A., Saghaei, H.: Penrose tiling-inspired graphene-covered multiband terahertz metamaterial absorbers. Opt. Express 31, 12653–12668 (2023)
Ebbesen, T.W., Genet, C., Bozhevolnyi, S.I.: Surface-plasmon circuitry. Phys. Today 61, 44–50 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.2930735
Emaminejad, H., Mir, A., Farmani, A.: Design and simulation of a novel tunable terahertz biosensor based on metamaterials for simultaneous monitoring of blood and urine components. Plasmonics 16, 1537–1548 (2021)
Fan, M., Yang, H., Zheng, P., Hu, G., Yun, B., Cui, Y.: Multilayer graphene electro-absorption optical modulator based on double-stripe silicon nitride waveguide. Opt. Express 25, 21619–21629 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1364/oe.25.021619
Farmani, A., Miri, M., Sheikhi, M.H.: Design of a high extinction ratio tunable graphene on white graphene polarizer. IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett. 30, 153–156 (2017)
Geim, A.K., Novoselov, K.S.: The rise of graphene. Nat. Mater. 6, 183–191 (2007)
Giambra, M.A., Sorianello, V., Miseikis, V., Marconi, S., Montanaro, A., Galli, P., Pezzini, S., Coletti, C., Romagnoli, M.: High-speed double layer graphene electro-absorption modulator on SOI waveguide. Opt. Express 27, 20145–20155 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1364/OE.27.020145
Giubileo, F., Di Bartolomeo, A.: The role of contact resistance in graphene field-effect devices. Prog. Surf. Sci. 92, 143–175 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progsurf.2017.05.002
Gosciniak, J., Tan, D.T.H.: Theoretical investigation of graphene-based photonic modulators. Sci. Rep. 3, 1–6 (2013a). https://doi.org/10.1038/srep01897
Gosciniak, J., Tan, D.T.H.: Graphene-based waveguide integrated dielectric-loaded plasmonic electro-absorption modulators. Nanotechnology 24, 185202 (2013b). https://doi.org/10.1088/0957-4484/24/18/185202
Hamzavi-Zarghani, Z., Yahaghi, A., Matekovits, L., Farmani, A.: Tunable mantle cloaking utilizing graphene metasurface for terahertz sensing applications. Opt. Express 27, 34824–34837 (2019)
Hao, R., Du, W., Chen, H., Jin, X., Yang, L., Li, E.: Ultra-compact optical modulator by graphene induced electro-refraction effect. Appl. Phys. Lett. 103, 061116 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4818457
Holmgaard, T., Bozhevolnyi, S.I.: Theoretical analysis of dielectric-loaded surface plasmon-polariton waveguides. Phys. Rev. B Condens. Matter Mater. Phys. 75, 1–12 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevB.75.245405
Hu, Y., Pantouvaki, M., Van Campenhout, J., Brems, S., Asselberghs, I., Huyghebaert, C., Absil, P., Van Thourhout, D.: Broadband 10 Gb/s operation of graphene electro-absorption modulator on silicon. Laser Photon Rev. 10, 307–316 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1002/lpor.201500250
Huang, H., Chen, S., Wee, A.T.S., Chen, W.: Epitaxial growth of graphene on silicon carbide (SiC). In: Graphene, pp. 177–198. Elsevier (2014)
Khajeh, A., Hamzavi-Zarghani, Z., Yahaghi, A., Farmani, A.: Tunable broadband polarization converters based on coded graphene metasurfaces. Sci. Rep. 11, 1296 (2021)
Koester, S.J., Li, M.: High-speed waveguide-coupled graphene-on-graphene optical modulators. Appl. Phys. Lett. 100, 171107 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4704663
Koester, S.J., Li, M.: Waveguide-coupled graphene optoelectronics. IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 20, 84–94 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1109/JSTQE.2013.2272316
Koester, S.J., Li, H., Li, M.: Switching energy limits of waveguide-coupled graphene-on-graphene optical modulators. Opt. Express 20, 20330–20341 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1364/oe.20.020330
Lee, B.G., Biberman, A., Chan, J., Bergman, K.: High-performance modulators and switches for silicon photonic networks-on-chip. IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 16, 6–22 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1109/JSTQE.2009.2028437
Liu, A., Jones, R., Liao, L., Samara-Rubio, D., Rubin, D., Cohen, O., Nicolaescu, R., Paniccia, M.: A high-speed silicon optical modulator based on a metal-oxide-semiconductor capacitor. Nature 427, 615–618 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02310
Liu, M., Yin, X., Ulin-Avila, E., Geng, B., Zentgraf, T., Ju, L., Wang, F., Zhang, X.: A graphene-based broadband optical modulator. Nature 474, 64–67 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10067
Liu, M., Yin, X., Zhang, X.: Double-layer graphene optical modulator. Nano Lett. 12, 1482–1485 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1021/nl204202k
Lu, Z., Zhao, W.: Nanoscale electro-optic modulators based on graphene-slot waveguides. J. Opt. Soc. Am. B 29, 1490–1496 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1364/josab.29.001490
Naghizade, S., Saghaei, H.: Tunable graphene-on-insulator band-stop filter at the mid-infrared region. Opt. Quantum Electron. 52, 224 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11082-020-02350-4
Naghizade, S., Saghaei, H.: A tunable electro-optic analog to digital converter using graphene nanoshells in photonic crystal resonators. JOSA B 38, 2127–2134 (2021a)
Naghizade, S., Saghaei, H.: Ultra-fast tunable optoelectronic half adder/subtractor based on photonic crystal ring resonators covered by graphene nanoshells. Opt. Quantum Electron. 53, 380 (2021b). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11082-021-03071-y
Naghizade, S., Saghaei, H.: Tunable electro-optic analog-to-digital converter using graphene nanoshells in photonic crystal ring resonators. J. Opt. Soc. Am. B 38, 2127–2134 (2021bc). https://doi.org/10.1364/JOSAB.423088
Naghizade, S., Saghaei, H.: Ultra-fast tunable optoelectronic full-adder based on photonic crystal ring resonators covered by graphene nanoshells. Physica E Low Dimens. Syst. Nanostruct. 142, 115293 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physe.2022.115293
Naghizade, S., Didari-Bader, A., Saghaei, H.: Ultra-fast tunable optoelectronic 2-to-4 binary decoder using graphene-coated silica rods in photonic crystal ring resonators. Opt. Quantum Electron. 54, 767 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11082-022-04157-x
Naghizade, S., Didari-Bader, A., Saghaei, H., Etezad, M.: An electro-optic comparator based on photonic crystal ring resonators covered by graphene nanoshells. Optik 283, 170898 (2023)
Narayanan Mathivanan, S.: Finite element characterisation of graphene-silicon hybrid waveguides. Diss. City, University of London (2019)
Nayyeri Raad, A., Saghaei, H., Mehrabani, Y.S.: An optical 2-to-4 decoder based on photonic crystal X-shaped resonators covered by graphene shells. Opt. Quantum Electron. 55, 452 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11082-023-04727-7
Nikoufard, M., Alamouti, M.K., Pourgholi, S.: Multimode interference power-splitter using InP-based deeply etched hybrid plasmonic waveguide. IEEE Trans. Nanotechnol. 16, 477–483 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1109/TNANO.2017.2688397
Novoselov, K.S., Geim, A.K., Morozov, S.V., Jiang, D., Katsnelson, M.I., Grigorieva, I.V., Dubonos, S.V., Firsov, A.A.: Two-dimensional gas of massless Dirac fermions in graphene. Nature 438, 197–200 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1038/nature04233
Peng, S.A., Jin, Z., Ma, P., Zhang, D.Y., Shi, J.Y., Bin Niu, J., Wang, X.Y., Wang, S.Q., Li, M., Liu, X.Y., Ye, T.C., Zhang, Y.H., Chen, Z.Y., Yu, G.H.: The sheet resistance of graphene under contact and its effect on the derived specific contact resistivity. Carbon 82, 500–505 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2014.11.001
Pizzocchero, F., Jessen, B.S., Gammelgaard, L., Andryieuski, A., Whelan, P.R., Shivayogimath, A., Caridad, J.M., Kling, J., Petrone, N., Tang, P.T.: Chemical vapor-deposited graphene on ultraflat copper foils for van der Waals hetero-assembly. ACS Omega 7, 22626–22632 (2022)
Reed, G.T., Mashanovich, G., Gardes, F.Y., Thomson, D.J.: Silicon optical modulators. Nat. Photonics 4, 518–526 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1038/nphoton.2010.179
Rezaei, M.H., Shiri, M.: High-performance tunable resonant electro-optical modulator based on suspended graphene waveguides. Opt. Express 29, 16299–16311 (2021)
Rezaei, M.H., Zarifkar, A.: Dielectric-loaded graphene-based plasmonic multilogic gate using a multimode interference splitter. Appl. Opt. 57, 10109–10116 (2018)
Rezaei, M.H., Zarifkar, A.: High-extinction ratio and ultra-compact two-bit comparators based on graphene-plasmonic waveguides. Appl. Opt. 58, 9829–9838 (2019)
Rezaei, M.H., Zarifkar, A., Miri, M.: Ultra-compact electro-optical graphene-based plasmonic multi-logic gate with high extinction ratio. Opt. Mater. 84, 572–578 (2018)
Rezaei, M.H., Zarifkar, A., Miri, M., Alighanbari, A.: Design of a high-efficient and ultra-compact full-adder based on graphene-plasmonic structure. Superlattices Microstruct. 129, 139–145 (2019)
Rezaei, M.H., Boroumandi, R., Zarifkar, A., Farmani, A.: Nano-scale multifunctional logic gate based on graphene/hexagonal boron nitride plasmonic waveguides. IET Optoelectron. 14, 37–43 (2020)
Sellathurai, A.J., Mypati, S., Kontopoulou, M., Barz, D.P.J.: High yields of graphene nanoplatelets by liquid phase exfoliation using graphene oxide as a stabilizer. Chem. Eng. J. 451, 138365 (2023)
Shu, H., Su, Z., Huang, L., Wu, Z., Wang, X., Zhang, Z., Zhou, Z.: Significantly high modulation efficiency of compact graphene modulator based on silicon waveguide. Sci. Rep. 8, 1–8 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-19171-x
Sirleto, L., Coppola, G., Iodice, M., Casalino, M., Gioffrè, M., Rendina, I.: Thermo-optical switches. In: Optical Switches: Materials and Design, pp. 61–96. Woodhead Publishing (2010)
Smit, M., Williams, K., Van Der Tol, J.: Past, present, and future of InP-based photonic integration. APL Photonics 4, 050901 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5087862
Soleimannezhad, F., Nikoufard, M., Mahdian, M.A.: Low-loss indium phosphide-based hybrid plasmonic waveguide. Microw. Opt. Technol. Lett. 63, 2242–2251 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1002/mop.32488
Soref, R.A., Bennett, B.R.: Electrooptical effects in silicon. IEEE J. Quantum Electron. 23, 123–129 (1987). https://doi.org/10.1109/JQE.1987.1073206
Thomson, D.J., Hu, Y., Reed, G.T., Fedeli, J.M.: Low loss MMI couplers for high performance MZI modulators. IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett. 22, 1485–1487 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1109/LPT.2010.2063018
Vakil, A., Engheta, N.: Transformation optics using graphene. Science 332, 1291–1294 (1979). https://doi.org/10.1126/SCIENCE.1202691/SUPPL_FILE/VAKIL-SOM.PDF
Woehrl, N., Ochedowski, O., Gottlieb, S., Shibasaki, K., Schulz, S.: Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition of graphene on copper substrates. AIP Adv. 4, 047128 (2014)
Xia, J., Chen, F., Li, J., Tao, N.: Measurement of the quantum capacitance of graphene. Nat. Nanotechnol. 4, 505–509 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1038/nnano.2009.177
Xia, F., Perebeinos, V., Lin, Y.M., Wu, Y., Avouris, P.: The origins and limits of metal-graphene junction resistance. Nat. Nanotechnol. 6, 179–184 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1038/nnano.2011.6
Xu, Q., Schmidt, B., Pradhan, S., Lipson, M.: Micrometre-scale silicon electro-optic modulator. Nature 435, 325–327 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1038/nature03569
Ye, S., Wang, Z., Tang, L., Zhang, Y., Lu, R., Liu, Y.: Electro-absorption optical modulator using dual-graphene-on-graphene configuration. Opt. Express 22, 26173–26180 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1364/oe.22.026173
Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
HN: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Software, Writing. MN: Project administration, Resources, Software, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing, Review, Revise & Editing. HS: Advising, Validation, Visualization, Review, Revise & Editing.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Ethical approval
The authors have completely observed the ethical issues, including plagiarism, informed consent, misconduct, data fabrication and/or falsification, double publication and/or submission, and redundancy.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Nezamdoost, H., Nikoufard, M. & Saghaei, H. Graphene-based hybrid plasmonic optical electro-absorption modulator on InP platform. Opt Quant Electron 56, 482 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11082-023-06136-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11082-023-06136-2