Abstract
A number of recent flash floods and debris flows, which were triggered by glacier avalanches from relatively small but steep hanging glaciers have exposed the vulnerability of infrastructures and livelihoods in the high Himalaya. As of now, there are no methods to identify potentially dangerous hanging glaciers in a catchment, and to assess the associated risk to any infrastructure. In this study, we propose a simple physics-based, probabilistic method to provide a first-order solution to this problem. It is based on considering a large number of hypothetical glacier avalanches and associated flood events within a numerically-efficient Monte-Carlo framework. We assign probability weights to the chain of events involved in any flood reaching a given dam location. To assess the relative risk, we test the method in three Himalayan catchments, including two where glacier avalanche events have been reported in the recent past. The proposed method is based on a series of simplifying assumptions regarding the initiation and propagation of the events, necessitated by the complexity of the processes involved and a lack of data in these remote environments. Our method performs reasonably well in two of the studied Himalayan catchments, while limitations in the performance of the method are apparent in one of the studied catchments. A better understanding of the underlying processes may help with more accurate parameterisations of the weights assigned to the chain of events. The presented method may be considered a starting point to quantify the risk posed by increasingly unstable ice on high and steep slopes to hydropower infrastructures in the Himalayan catchments.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Availability of data and materials
All the input data used in this study are publicly available. Please see Sect. 3.1 for details.
Code availability
All the developed codes are available using this DOI: 10.17605/OSF.IO/PC4XF.
References
Acharya A, Steiner JF, Walizada KM, Zakir ZH, Ali S, Caiserman A, Watanabe T (2023) Review article: Snow and ice avalanches in high mountain Asia scientific, local and indigenous knowledge. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 23:2569–2592. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-23-2569-2023
Alean Jürg (1985) Ice avalanches: some empirical information about their formation and reach. J Glaciol 31(109):32433. https://doi.org/10.3189/S0022143000006663
Austin P (1967) Effects of the March 1964 Alaska earthquake on glaciers. US Government Printing Office. https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0544d/
Ballantyne CK (2002) Paraglacial geomorphology. Qu Sci Rev 21(18–19):1935–2017. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-3791(02)00005-7
Banerjee A, Wani BA (2018) Exponentially decreasing erosion rates protect the high-elevation crests of the Himalaya. Earth Planetary Sci Lett 497:22–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2018.06.001
Bartelt P, Buser O, Vera Valero C, Bühler Y (2016) Configurational energy and the formation of mixed flowing/powder snow and ice avalanches. Ann Glaciol 57(71):17988. https://doi.org/10.3189/2016AoG71A464
Berthier E, Brun F (2019) Karakoram geodetic glacier mass balances between 2008 and 2016: persistence of the anomaly and influence of a large rock avalanche on Siachen Glacier. J Glaciol 65(251):494–507. https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2019.32
Bhutiyani MR, Mahto R (2018) Remote-sensing-based study of impact of a rock avalanche on North Terong Glacier in Karakorum Himalaya. Int J Remote Sens 39(22):8076–8091. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431161.2018.148007
Brunetti MT, Guzzetti F, Rossi MJNPIG (2009) Probability distributions of landslide volumes. Nonlinear Process Geophy 16(2):179–188. https://doi.org/10.5194/npg-16-179-2009
Burg JP, Nievergelt P, Oberli F, Seward D, Davy P, Maurin JC, Diao Z, Meier M (1998) The Namche Barwa syntaxis: evidence for exhumation related to compressional crustal folding. J Asian Earth Sci 16(23):239252. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0743-9547(98)00002-6
Caplan-Auerbach J, Huggel C (2007) Precursory seismicity associated with frequent, large ice avalanches on Iliamna volcano, Alaska, USA. J Glaciol 53:128140. https://doi.org/10.3189/172756507781833866
Chen C, Zhang L, Xiao T, He J (2020) Barrier lake bursting and flood routing in the Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon in October 2018. J Hydrol 583:124603. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2020.124603
Davies MC, Hamza O, Harris C (2001) The effect of rise in mean annual temperature on the stability of rock slopes containing ice? filled discontinuities. Permafrost Periglacial Process 12(1):137–144. https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.378
Dunning SA, Rosser NJ, McColl ST, Reznichenko NV (2015) Rapid sequestration of rock avalanche deposits within glaciers. Nat Commun 6(1):1–7. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms8964
Eckert N, Parent E, Naaim M, Richard D (2008) Bayesian stochastic modelling for avalanche predetermination: from a general system framework to return period computations. Stochastic Environ Res Risk Assess 22(2):185–206. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00477-007-0107-4
Evans SG, Delaney KB, Rana NM (2021) The occurrence and mechanism of catastrophic mass flows in the mountain cryosphere. In: Snow and Ice-Related Hazards, Risks, and Disasters (pp. 541-596). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817129-5.00004-4
Faillettaz J, Funk M, Sornette D (2012) Instabilities on Alpine temperate glaciers: new insights arising from the numerical modelling of Allalingletscher (Valais, Switzerland). Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 12(9):2977–2991. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-12-2977-2012
Fan X, Yunus AP, Yang YH, Subramanian SS, Zou C, Dai L, Dou X, Narayana AC, Avtar R, Xu Q, Huang R (2022) Imminent threat of rock-ice avalanches in High Mountain Asia. Sci Total Environ 836:15538. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155380
Farinotti D, Huss M, Fürst JJ, Landmann J, Machguth H, Maussion F, Pandit A (2019) A consensus estimate for the ice thickness distribution of all glaciers on Earth. Nat Geosci 12(3):168–173. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-019-0300-3
Fischer L, Huggel C, Kääb A, Haeberli W (2013) Slope failures and erosion rates on a glacierized high-mountain face under climatic changes. Earth Surf Process Landf 38(8):836–846. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3355
Fujita K, Inoue H, Izumi T, Yamaguchi S, Sadakane A, Sunako S, Nishimura K, Immerzeel WW, Shea JM, Kayastha RB, Sawagaki T, Breashears DF, Yagi H, Sakai A (2017) Anomalous winter-snow-amplified earthquake-induced disaster of the 2015 Langtang avalanche in Nepal. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 17(5):749–764. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-17-749-2017
Garbrecht J, Martz LW (1997) The assignment of drainage direction over flat surfaces in raster digital elevation models. J Hydrol 193(1–4):204–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1694(96)03138-1
Haeberli W, Alean J-C, Müller P, Funk M (1989) Assessing risks from glacier hazards in high mountain regions: some experiences in the Swiss Alps. Ann Glaciol 13:96102. https://doi.org/10.3189/S0260305500007709
Hales TC, Roering JJ (2007) Climatic controls on frost cracking and implications for the evolution of bedrock landscapes. J Geophys Res Earth Surf. https://doi.org/10.1029/2006JF000616
Hallet B, Walder JS, Stubbs CW (1991) Weathering by segregation ice growth in microcracks at sustained subzero temperatures: verification from an experimental study using acoustic emissions. Permafrost Periglacial Process 2(4):283–300. https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.3430020404
Hasler A, Gruber S, Font M, Dubois A (2011) Advective heat transport in frozen rock clefts: conceptual model, laboratory experiments and numerical simulation. Permafrost Periglacial Process 22(4):378–389. https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp.737
Hanisch J, Koirala A, Bhandary NP (2013) The Pokhara May 5th flood disaster: a last warning sign sent by nature? J Nepal Geol Soc 46:1–10. https://doi.org/10.3126/jngs.v46i0.31568
Hersbach H, Bell B, Berrisford P, Biavati G, Horanyi A, Munoz Sabater J, Nicolas J, Peubey C, Radu R, Rozum I, Schepers D, Simmons A, Soci C, Dee D, Thepaut J-N (2018) ERA5 hourly data on single levels from 1959 to present. Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) Climate Data Store (CDS), Accessed24 January 2023. https://doi.org/10.24381/cds.adbb2d47
Hu K, Zhang X, You Y, Hu X, Liu W, Li Y (2019) Landslides and dammed lakes triggered by the 2017 Ms6. 9 Milin earthquake in the Tsangpo gorge. Landslides 16(5):993–1001. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-019-01168-w
Huang JC, Kao SJ, Hsu ML, Lin JC (2006) Stochastic procedure to extract and to integrate landslide susceptibility maps: an example of mountainous watershed in Taiwan. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 6(5):803–815. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-6-803-2006
Huber A (2019) Hydropower in the Himalayan hazardscape: strategic ignorance and the production of unequal risk. Water 11(3):414. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11030414
Huggel C, Zgraggen-Oswald S, Haeberli W, Kääb A, Polkvoj A, Galushkin I, Evans SG (2005) The 2002 rock/ice avalanche at Kolka/Karmadon, Russian Caucasus: assessment of extraordinary avalanche formation and mobility, and application of QuickBird satellite imagery. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 5(2):173–187. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-5-173-2005
Hussain A, Sarangi GK, Pandit A, Ishaq S, Mamnun N, Ahmad B, Jamil MK (2019) Hydropower development in the Hindu Kush Himalayan region: issues, policies and opportunities. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 107:446–461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.03.010
Kääb A, Jacquemart M, Gilbert A, Leinss S, Girod L, Huggel C, Falaschi D, Ugalde F, Petrakov D, Chernomorets S, Dokukin M, Paul F, Gascoin S, Berthier E, Kargel JS (2021) Sudden large-volume detachments of low-angle mountain glaciers more frequent than thought? The Cryosphere 15(4):1751–1785. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1751-2021
Kargel JS, Leonard GJ, Shugar DH, Haritashya UK, Bevington A, Fielding EJ, Fujita K, Geertsema M, Miles ES, Steiner J, Anderson E, Bajracharya S, Bawden GW, Breashears DF, Byers A, Collins B, Dhital MR, Donnellan A, Evans TL, Geai ML, Glasscoe MT, Green D, Gurung DR, Heijenk R, Hilborn A, Hudnut K, Huyck C, Immerzeel WW, Liming J, Jibson R, Kääb A, Khanal NR, Kirschbaum D, Kraaijenbrink PDA, Lamsal D, Shiyin L, Mingyang L, McKinney D, Nahirnick NK, Zhuotong N, Ojha S, Olsenholler J, Painter TH, Pleasants M, Pratima KC, Yuan Q, Raup BH, Regmi D, Rounce DR, Sakai A, Donghui S, Shea JM, Shrestha AB, Shukla A, Stumm D, van der Kooij M, Voss K, Xin W, Weihs B, Wolfe D, Lizong W, Xiaojun Y, Yoder MR, Young N (2016) Geomorphic and geologic controls of geohazards induced by Nepal’s 2015 Gorkha earthquake. Science 351(6269):aac8353. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aac8353
Kropáček J, Vilímek J, Mehrishi P (2021) A preliminary assessment of the Chamoli rock and ice avalanche in the Indian Himalayas by remote sensing. Landslides. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-021-01742-1
Lan H, Liu X, Li L, Li Q, Tian N, Peng J (2022) Remote sensing precursors analysis for giant landslides. Remote Sens 14(17):4399. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14174399
Li W, Zhao B, Xu Q, Scaringi G, Lu H, Huang R (2022) More frequent glacier-rock avalanches in Sedongpu gully are blocking the Yarlung Zangbo River in eastern Tibet. Landslides 19(3):589–601. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-021-01798-z
Lipovsky PS, Evans SG, Clague JJ, Hopkinson C, Couture R, Bobrowsky P, Ekström G, Demuth MN, Delaney KB, Roberts NJ, Clarke G, Schaeffer A (2008) The July 2007 rock and ice avalanches at Mount Steele, St. Elias Mountains, Yukon Canada. Landslides 5:445–455. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-008-0133-4
Manchado AMT, Allen S, Ballesteros-Canovas JA, Dhakal A, Dhital MR, Stoffel M (2021) Three decades of landslide activity in western Nepal: new insights into trends and climate drivers. Landslides 18(6):2001–2015. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-021-01632-6
Margreth S, Funk M, Tobler D, Dalban P, Meier L, Lauper J (2017) Analysis of the hazard caused by ice avalanches from the hanging glacier on the Eiger west face. Cold Regions Sci Technol 144:63–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2017.05.012
Martha TR, Roy P, Jain N, Kumar KV, Reddy PS, Nalini J, Sharma SVSP, Shukla AK, Rao KHVD, Narender B, Rao PVN, Muralikrishnan S (2021) Rock avalanche induced flash flood on 07 February 2021 in Uttarakhand, India-a photogeological reconstruction of the event. Landslides 18:2881–2893. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-021-01691-9
McClung DM (2016) Avalanche character and fatalities in the high mountains of Asia. Ann Glaciol 57(71):11418. https://doi.org/10.3189/2016AoG71A075
Mehta M, Dobhal DP, Bisht MPS (2011) Avalanche morphometry and hazard potential assessment in Laxman Ganga catchment Garhwal Himalaya. Himalayan Geology 32(2):159–167
Mishra A (2015) Cloudburst and landslides in Uttarakhand: A nature’s fury? Mausam 66(1):139–144. https://doi.org/10.54302/mausam.v66i1.374
Mitchell A, McDougall S, Nolde N, Brideau MA, Whittall J, Aaron JB (2020) Rock avalanche runout prediction using stochastic analysis of a regional dataset. Landslides 17(4):777–792. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-019-01331-3
Nie Y, Pritchard HD, Liu Q, Hennig T, Wang W, Wang X, Liu S, Nepal S, Samyn D, Hewitt K, Chen X (2021) Glacial change and hydrological implications in the Himalaya and Karakoram. Nat Rev Earth Environ 2(2):91–106. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-020-00124-w
Okura Y, Kitahara H, Kawanami A, Kurokawa U (2003) Topography and volume effects on travel distance of surface failure. Eng Geol 67(3–4):243–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-7952(02)00183-7
Pralong A, Funk M (2006) On the instability of avalanching glaciers. J Glaciol 52(176):31–48. https://doi.org/10.3189/172756506781828980
Raj KBG (2017) A birds eye view of debris-Avalanche on Miyar Glacier, Chenab Basin, India. J Indian Soc Remote Sens 45(6):1031–1038. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12524-016-0653-7
RGI Consortium (2017) Randolph Glacier Inventory - A Dataset of Global Glacier Outlines, Version 6 [Data Set]. Boulder, Colorado USA. National Snow and Ice Data Center. https://doi.org/10.7265/4m1f-gd79, Accessed 24 January 2023
Röthlisberger H (1977) Ice avalanches. J Glaciol 19(81):669–671. https://doi.org/10.3189/S0022143000029580
Sati SP, Sundriyal YP, Rana N, Dangwal S (2011) Recent landslides in Uttarakhand: nature’s fury or human folly. Curr Sci 100(11):1617–1620
Schneider D, Huggel C, Haeberli W, Kaitna R (2011) Unraveling driving factors for large rock-ice avalanche mobility. Earth Surf Process Landf 36(14):1948–1966. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.2218
Schwanghart W, Worni R, Huggel C, Stoffel M, Korup O (2016) Uncertainty in the Himalayan energy-water nexus: estimating regional exposure to glacial lake outburst floods. Environ Res Lett 11(7):074005. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/11/7/074005
Sharma T (1992) The Intra-Montane basins of the midland zone, geological hazards with special reference to human activities. J Nepal Geol Soc 8:31–41. https://doi.org/10.3126/jngs.v8i0.32600
Shugar DH, Jacquemart M, Shean D, Bhushan S, Upadhyay K, Sattar A, Schwanghart W, McBride S, Wyk Van, de Vries M, Mergili M, Emmer A, Deschamps-Berger C, McDonnell M, Bhambri R, Allen S, Berthier E, Carrivick JL, Clague JJ, Dokukin M, Dunning SA, Frey H, Gascoin S, Haritashya UK, Huggel C, Kääb A, Kargel JS, Kavanaugh JL, Lacroix P, Petley D, Rupper S, Azam MF, Cook SJ, Dimri AP, Eriksson M, Farinotti D, Fiddes J, Gnyawali KR, Harrison S, Jha M, Koppes M, Kumar A, Leinss S, Majeed U, Mal S, Muhuri A, Noetzli J, Paul F, Rashid I, Sain K, Steiner J, Ugalde F, Watson CS, Westoby MJ (2021) A massive rock and ice avalanche caused the 2021 disaster at Chamoli Indian Himalaya. Science 373(6552):300–306. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abh4455
Tamang S, Thapa S, Paudyal KR, Girault F, Perrier F (2019) Geology and mineral resources of Khudi-Bahundanda area of west-central Nepal along Marshyangdi Valley. J Nepal Geol Soc 58:97–103. https://doi.org/10.3126/jngs.v58i0.24592
Te Chow V, Maidment DR, Mays LW (1962) Applied hydrology. J Eng Educ, 308, ISBN 0-07-010810-2
Thayyen RJ, Mishra PK, Jain SK, Wani JM, Singh H, Singh MK, Yadav B (2022) Hanging glacier avalanche (Raunthigad-Rishiganga) and debris flow disaster on 7 February 2021, Uttarakhand, India: a preliminary assessment. Nat Hazards 114(2):1939–1966. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-022-05454-0
Valdiya KS, Goel OP (1983) Lithological subdivision and petrology of the Great Himalayan Vaikrita group in Kumaun, India. Proc Indian Acad Sci Earth Planet Sci 92(2):141–163. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02866736
Vaidya RA, Shrestha MS, Nasab N, Gurung DR, Kozo N, Pradhan NS, Wasson RJ (2019) Disaster risk reduction and building resilience in the Hindu Kush Himalaya. In: The Hindu Kush Himalaya Assessment (pp. 389-419). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-92288-1_11
Vaidya RA, Molden DJ, Shrestha AB, Wagle N, Tortajada C (2021) The role of hydropower in South Asia’s energy future. Int J Water Res Develop 37(3):367–391. https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2021.1875809
Van der Woerd J, Owen LA, Tapponnier P, Xiwei X, Kervyn F, Finkel RC, Barnard PL (2004) Giant,\(\sim\) M8 earthquake-triggered ice avalanches in the eastern Kunlun Shan, northern Tibet: Characteristics, nature and dynamics. Geol Soc Am Bull 116(3–4):394–406. https://doi.org/10.1130/B25317.1
Wyk Van, de Vries M, Bhushan S, Jacquemart M et al (2022) Pre-collapse motion of the February 2021 Chamoli rock-ice avalanche, Indian Himalaya. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 22(10):3309–3327. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-22-3309-2022
Vargas-Cuervo G, Rotigliano E, Conoscenti C (2019) Prediction of debris-avalanches and-flows triggered by a tropical storm by using a stochastic approach: An application to the events occurred in Mocoa (Colombia) on 1 April 2017. Geomorphology 339:31–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2019.04.023
Wang S, Che Y, Xinggang M (2020) Integrated risk assessment of glacier lake outburst flood (GLOF) disaster over the Qinghai Tibetan Plateau (QTP). Landslides 17(12):2849–2863. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-020-01443-1
Weidinger JT (2006) Predesign, failure and displacement mechanisms of large rockslides in the Annapurna Himalayas Nepal. Eng Geol 83(1–3):201–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2005.06.032
Matthias Wegmann, Hilmar Gudmundsson G, Wilfried Haeberli (1998) Permafrost changes in rock walls and the retreat of alpine glaciers: a thermal modelling approach. Permafrost Periglacial Process 9(1):2333. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1530(199801/03)9:1$<$23::AID-PPP274$>$3.0.CO;2-Y
Xu GQ, Cai ZF, Zhang ZM, Li HQ, Chen FY, Tang ZM (2008) Tectonics and fabric kinematics of the Namche Barwa terrane. Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis. Acta Petrologica Sinica 24(7):14631476 ((in Chinese))
Yang W, Wang Z, An B, Chen Y, Zhao C, Li C, Wang Y, Wang W, Li J, Wu G, Bai L, Zhang F, Yao T (2023) Early warning system for ice collapses and river blockages in the Sedongpu Valley, southeastern Tibetan Plateau, Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci. Discuss. [preprint]. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-2023-38, in review
Yanlong W, Maohuan H (1992) An outline of avalanches in the southeastern Tibet Plateau, China. Ann Glaciol 16:146–150. https://doi.org/10.3189/1992AoG16-1-146-150
Zarfl C, Lumsdon AE, Berlekamp J, Tydecks L, Tockner K (2015) A global boom in hydropower dam construction. Aquat Sci 77(1):161–170. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00027-014-0377-0
Zhang ZG, Liu YH, Wang TW (1992) Geology of Namcha Barwa areas. Science Press, Beijing (in Chinese)
Zhang XP, Hu KH, Liu S, Nie Y, Han YZ (2022) Comprehensive interpretation of the Sedongpu glacier-related mass flows in the eastern Himalayan syntaxis. J Mount Sci 19(9):2469–2486. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-022-7376-8
Zhao C, Yang W, Westoby M, An B, Wu G, Wang W, Wang Z, Wang Y, Dunning S (2022) Brief communication: An approximately 50 Mm 3 ice-rock avalanche on 22 March 2021 in the Sedongpu valley, southeastern Tibetan Plateau. The Cryosphere 16(4):1333–1340. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-1333-2022
Zheng G, Allen SK, Bao A, Ballesteros-Canovas JA, Huss M, Zhang G, Li J, Yuan Y, Jiang L, Chen W, Stoffel M (2021) Increasing risk of glacial lake outburst floods from future Third Pole deglaciation. Nat Clim Change 11(5):411–417. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-021-01028-3
Acknowledgements
JS acknowledges that the views and interpretations in this publication are those of the authors and are not necessarily attributable to ICIMOD.
Funding
The authors declare that no funds or grants were involved during the preparation of this manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
AB conceptualised the basic principles of the study with help from all the other authors. SL wrote the codes for implementing the method. SL and JS did the data analysis with help from all other authors. SL, JS, AB, SV, and IR wrote the manuscript with help from others. UM provided Figs. 2 and 5 with inputs from SL and others. All authors participated in the discussions.
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The contact author has declared that none of the authors has any competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Laha, S., Majeed, U., Banerjee, A. et al. Assessing potential risk of glacier avalanches to hydropower infrastructure in the Himalayan region. Nat Hazards 120, 4749–4774 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-023-06389-w
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-023-06389-w