Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Links Between Adolescents’ Expected Parental Reactions and Prosocial Behavioral Tendencies: The Mediating Role of Prosocial Values

  • Empirical Research
  • Published:
Journal of Youth and Adolescence Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The purpose of the present study was to examine relations between adolescents’ social cognitions regarding parenting practices and adolescents’ prosocial behavioral tendencies. A mediation model was tested whereby the degree to which adolescents perceived their parents as responding appropriately to their prosocial and antisocial behaviors was hypothesized to predict adolescents’ tendencies toward prosocial behavior indirectly by way of adolescents’ prosocial values. Adolescents (N = 140; M age = 16.76 years, SD = .80; 64% girls; 91% European Americans) completed measures of prosocial values and of the appropriateness with which they expected their parents to react to their prosocial and antisocial behaviors. In addition, teachers and parents rated the adolescents’ tendencies for prosocial behaviors. A structural equation model test showed that the degree to which adolescents expected their parents to respond appropriately to their prosocial behaviors was related positively to their prosocial values, which in turn was positively associated with their tendencies to engage in prosocial behaviors (as reported by parents and teachers). The findings provide evidence for the central role of adolescents’ evaluations and expectancies of parental behaviors and of the role of values in predicting prosocial tendencies. Discussion focuses on the implications for moral socialization theories and on the practical implications of these findings in understanding adolescents’ prosocial development.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. A direct link from the predictor to outcome was necessary for earlier conceptions of mediation (Baron and Kenny 1986). However, more recently MacKinnon et al. (MacKinnon et al. 2002, 2007) have argued that a significant direct link be should not be a necessary criteria for mediation, as long as the indirect path is significant. In fact, they state that such cases of significant indirect but not direct relations between predictors and outcomes are quite common, and demonstrate that most of the links between the predictors and outcomes are mediational. Moreover, requiring a significant direct effect reduces the power to detect true mediation effects.

References

  • Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (2005). The influence of attitudes on behavior. In D. Albarrací, B. T. Johnson, & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), The handbook of attitudes (pp. 173–221). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arnett, J. J. (2007). Adolescence and emerging adulthood: A cultural approach (3rd ed.). Upper Sadle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

  • Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bardi, A., & Schwartz, S. H. (2003). Values and behavior: Strength and structure of relations. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 1207–1220. doi:10.1177/0146167203254602.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173–1182. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1173.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baumrind, D. (1991). The influence of parenting style on adolescent competence and substance abuse. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 11, 56–95. doi:10.1177/0272431691111004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 238–246. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.238.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bentler, P. M. (2008). EQS 6 structural equations program manual. Encino, CA: Multivariate Software, Inc. (www.mvsoft.com) (in press).

  • Bornstein, M. H. (Ed.). (2002). Handbook of parenting. Vol 1: Children and parenting. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bornstein, M. H., Hahn, C., Suwalksy, J. T. D., & Haynes, O. M. (2003). Socioeconomic status, parenting, and child development: The Hollingshead four-factor index of social status and the socioeconomic index of occupations. In M. H. Bornstein & R. H. Bradley (Eds.), Socioeconomic status, parenting, and child development (pp. 29–82). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlo, G., Fabes, R. A., Laible, D., & Kupanoff, K. (1999). Early adolescence and prosocial/moral behavior II: The role of social and contextual influences. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 19, 133–147. doi:10.1177/0272431699019002001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carlo, G., Hausmann, A., Christiansen, S., & Randall, B. A. (2003). Sociocognitive and behavioral correlates of a measure of prosocial tendencies for adolescents. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 23, 107–134. doi:10.1177/0272431602239132.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carlo, G., McGinley, M., Hayes, R., Batenhorst, C., & Wilkinson, J. (2007). Parenting styles or practices? parenting, sympathy, and prosocial behaviors among adolescents. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 168, 147–176. doi:10.3200/GNTP.168.2.147-176.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carlo, G., & Randall, B. A. (2002). The development of a measure of prosocial behaviors for late adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 31, 31–44. doi:10.1023/A:1014033032440.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cervone, D. (2005). Personality architecture: Within-person structures and processes. Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 423–452. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070133.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J., & Cohen, P. (1983). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Colby, A., & Damon, W. (1992). Some do care: Contemporary lives of moral commitment. New York: The Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R., & Dodge, K. A. (1994). A review and reformulation of social information-processing mechanisms in children’s social adjustment. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 74–101. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.115.1.74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 109–132. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., & Spinrad, T. L. (2006). Prosocial development. In W. Damon & R. Lerner (Series Eds.), N. Eisenberg (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (6th ed., pp. 646–718). New York: Wiley.

  • Eisenberg, N., & Valiente, C. (2002). Parenting and children’s prosocial and moral development. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Vol. 5. Practical issues in parenting (2nd ed., pp. 111–142). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grusec, J. E. (2006). The development of moral behavior and conscience from a socialization perspective. In M. Killen & J. Smetana (Eds.), Handbook of moral development (pp. 243–265). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grusec, J. E., & Goodnow, J. J. (1994). The impact of parental discipline methods on child’s internalization of values: A reconceptualization of current points of view. Developmental Psychology, 30, 4–19. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.30.1.4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hardy, S. A., & Carlo, G. (2005). Adolescent religiosity, prosocial values, and prosocial behaviors: A mediational analysis. Journal of Moral Education, 34, 231–249. doi:10.1080/03057240500127210.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hart, D. (2005). The development of moral identity. In G. Carlo & C. P. Edwards (Eds.), Moral motivation through the lifespan Vol. 51. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation (pp. 165–196). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hitlin, S., & Piliavin, J. A. (2004). Values: Reviving a dormant concept. Annual Review of Sociology, 30, 359–393. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.30.012703.110640.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, M. L. (2000). Empathy and moral development: Implications for caring and justice. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoyle, R. H. (2000). Confirmatory factor analysis. In H. E. A. Tinsley & S. D. Brown (Eds.), Handbook of applied multivariate statistics and mathematical modeling (pp. 465–497). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kochanska, G. (1993). Toward a synthesis of parental socialization and child temperament in early development. Child Development, 64, 325–347. doi:10.2307/1131254.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kohlberg, L. (1969). Stage and sequence: The cognitive developmental approach to socialization. In D. A. Goslin (Ed.), Handbook of socialization theory and research (pp. 347–480). Chicago, IL: Rand McNally.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuczynski, L., Marshall, S., & Schell, K. (1997). Value socialization in a bidirectional context. In J. E. Grusec & L. Kuczynski (Eds.), Parenting and children’s internalization of values: A handbook of contemporary theory (pp. 23–50). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lapsley, D. (1996). Moral psychology. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lapsley, D. K., & Narvaez, D. (2004). A social-cognitive approach to the moral personality. In D. K. Lapsley & D. Narvaez (Eds.), Moral development, self and identity (pp. 189–212). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lapsley, D. K., & Narvaez, D. (2006). Character education. In W. Damon & R. Lerner (Series Eds.), K. A. Renninger & I. E. Sigel (Vol. Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 4. Child psychology in practice (6th ed.; pp. 248–296). New York: Wiley.

  • Maccoby, E., & Martin, J. (1983). Socialization in the context of the family: Parent–child interactions. In P. H. Mussen (Series Ed.), E. M. Hetherington (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 4. Socialization, personality, and social development (pp. 1–101). New York: Wiley.

  • MacKinnon, D. P., Fairchild, A. J., & Fritz, M. S. (2007). Mediation analysis. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 593–614. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085542.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., Hoffman, J. M., West, S. G., & Sheets, V. (2002). A comparison of methods to test mediation and other intervening variable effects. Psychological Methods, 7, 83–104. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.7.1.83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Manstead, A. S. R. (1996). Attitudes and behaviour. In G. R. Semin & K. Fiedler (Eds.), Applied social psychology (pp. 3–29). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nederhof, A. J. (1985). Methods of coping with social desirability bias: A review. European Journal of Social Psychology, 15, 263–280. doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420150303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, D. A., & Crick, N. R. (1999). Rose-colored glasses: Examining the social information-processing of prosocial young adolescents. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 19, 17–38. doi:10.1177/0272431699019001002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Noland, R. M., & McCallum, R. S. (2000). A comparison of parent and teacher ratings of adaptive behavior using a universal measure. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 18, 39–48. doi:10.1177/073428290001800104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Padilla-Walker, L. M. (2007). Characteristics of mother–child interactions related to adolescents’ positive values and behaviors. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 69, 675–686. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2007.00399.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Padilla-Walker, L. M., & Carlo, G. (2004). “It’s not fair!” Adolescents’ constructions of appropriateness of parental reactions to antisocial and prosocial situations. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33, 389–401. doi:10.1023/B:JOYO.0000037632.46633.bd.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Padilla-Walker, L. M., & Carlo, G. (2006). Adolescent perceptions of appropriate parental reactions in moral and conventional social domains. Social Development, 15, 480–500. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2006.00352.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Padilla-Walker, L. M., & Carlo, G. (2007). Personal values as a mediator between parent and peer expectations and adolescent behaviors. Journal of Family Psychology, 21, 538–541. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.21.3.538.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Padilla-Walker, L. M., Nelson, L. J., Madsen, S., & Barry, C. M. (2008) The role of perceived parental knowledge on emerging adults’ risk behaviors. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37, 847–859.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. Washington, D.C: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pratt, M. W., Hunsberger, B., Pancer, S. M., & Alisat, S. (2003). A longitudinal analysis of personal value socialization: Correlates of moral self-ideal in adolescence. Social Development, 12, 563–585. doi:10.1111/1467-9507.00249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rohan, M. J. (2000). A rose by any name? the values construct. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4, 255–277. doi:10.1207/S15327957PSPR0403_4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., & Connell, J. P. (1989). Perceived locus of causality and internalization: Examining reasons for acting in two domains. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 749–761. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.57.5.749.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, S. H., & Bilsky, W. (1987). Toward a universal psychological structure of human values. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 550–562. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.53.3.550.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sigel, I. E., & McGillicuddy-De Lisi, A. V. (2002). Parental beliefs are cognitions: The dynamic belief systems model. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting Vol. 3: Status and social conditions of parenting (pp. 485–508). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smetana, J. G. (1997). Parenting and the development of social knowledge reconceptualized: A social domain analysis. In J. E. Grusec & L. Kuczynski (Eds.), Parenting and children’s internalization of values: A handbook of contemporary theory (pp. 162–192). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Staub, E. (1979). Positive social behavior and morality: Socialization and development. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vazire, S. (2006). Informant reports: A cheap, fast, and easy method for personality assessment. Journal of Research in Personality, 40, 472–481. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2005.03.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Verplanken, B., & Holland, R. W. (2002). Motivated decision making: Effects of activation and self-centrality of values on choices and behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 434–447. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.82.3.434.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wyatt, J. M., & Carlo, G. (2002). What will my parents think? relations among adolescents’ expected parental reactions, prosocial moral reasoning and prosocial and antisocial behaviors. Journal of Adolescent Research, 17, 646–666. doi:10.1177/074355802237468.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Funding support was provided by a grant from the Values-In-Action Institute to Gustavo Carlo. The authors would like to thank the teachers, staff, parents, and students at Lincoln Southeast High School for their generous cooperation and assistance. Data for this project was collected while Sam Hardy was at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. Correspondence may be addressed to Sam Hardy, Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, sam_hardy@byu.edu.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA

    Sam A. Hardy

  2. Department of Psychology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA

    Gustavo Carlo

  3. Department of Psychology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA

    Scott C. Roesch

Authors
  1. Sam A. Hardy
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Gustavo Carlo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Scott C. Roesch
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sam A. Hardy.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Hardy, S.A., Carlo, G. & Roesch, S.C. Links Between Adolescents’ Expected Parental Reactions and Prosocial Behavioral Tendencies: The Mediating Role of Prosocial Values. J Youth Adolescence 39, 84–95 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-008-9383-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-008-9383-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation