Abstract
This article discusses the problem of suicide in monotheistic religions (Judaism, Christianity and Islam), focusing on their early existence and considering the original contribution of Christianity. The first part presents the main theses of E. Durkheim on altruistic suicide and the concept of honour. This provides an opportunity to examine the problem of suicide in monotheistic religions from a more comprehensive perspective and recognise a certain specificity of suicide that was absent in altrusitic suicide. The analysis of the problem in relation to the concept of honour is also a valuable starting point for complementary psychological theories. The second part of the article is a more detailed discussion of suicide in Judaism, Christianity and Islam. The results provide a better understanding of the origins and nature of suicide in monotheistic religions whilst opening up a discussion on the possibility of suicide prevention.
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Notes
In forty-six Muslim-majority countries “males had a significantly higher rate and the highest suicide rate was found in Africa. There are inverse associations between the total suicide rate (…) with HDI [Human Development Index], and the income of the country” (Arafat et al., 2022, p. 754; see also Saiz et al., 2021).
Interesting results were obtained by Wilchek-Aviad and Malka concerning young people in Israel: “Negative correlation was found between a sense of meaning in life and suicidal tendencies, beyond gender or level of religiosity. In addition, no difference was found in level of suicidal tendency between Jewish religious and Jewish secular youth (…) The study therefore concludes that meaning in life is the dominant variable in minimizing suicidal tendencies among youth” (Wilchek-Aviad & Malka, 2016, p. 480).
Abdel-Khalek includes suicide in martyrdom (rather than terrorism) and treats it as part of the culture of resistance, although he also clearly links it to the Sharia tradition. It is worth mentioning here, however, that selected tenets of Shariah and jihad were or are the key fodder of terrorist groups (see an important study of the problem in Slavicek, 2008).
As Post et al. emphasise in the article Psychology of Suicide Terrorism, one of the key elements ensuring the flow and impact of the ideology of martyrdom, is collective identity. The authors also stress "the 'normality' and absence of individual psychopathology of the suicide bombers" (Post et al., 2009, p. 13). Although the article deals with terrorism and the politicised military version of jihad, it matches well with the presented theoretical context.
“Then Saul said to his armorbearer: “Draw your sword, and thrust me through with it, lest these uncircumcised men come and thrust me through and abuse me” (1 Sam 31:4).
It is mainly about the second century BC martyrdom described in the Books of Maccabees (the voluntary death of the persecuted Eleazar and also a mother and her seven sons—2 Macc 6:18–7:42), which was already interpreted in the first century AD as an atoning sacrifice for the sins of Israel: “For they became the ransom to the sin of the nation. The Divine Providence saved Israel, which was afflicted before, by the blood of those pious ones and the death that appeased wrath” (4 Macc 17:22). A similar motif of martyrdom and vicarious, redemptive death appears in Isaiah 53:3–11.
It should be remembered that these are the documents containing hagiographic elements. However, this does not interfere with reconstructing an early Christian interpretation of the martyrdom from the second to fourth centuries AD.
Many examples of this type are given by Eusebius of Caesarea in Church History (VIII,9:5), On the martyrs of Palestine (3:3) (Eusebius of Caesarea, 2023).
Even if to some extent this was true and the desire for martyrdom corresponded to masochistic needs, for example. Perhaps, too, N. Janowitz is right in attributing to the Jewish and early Christian martyrdom unconscious desires related to the concept of sacrifice, which became strongly pronounced during the period of the disappearance of sacrifice, temple worship and the outbreak of persecution (Janowitz, 2006).
“Christian extremism rests on select biblical models and references, such as that of Phineas (Num. 25) and proffers self-justifying theological support. In short, Christian fundamentalism manifests an ideological sequence of factors whose cumulative impact once (or if) the final factor of enacting violence is reached, can be devastating” (Pratt, 2018, p. 443).
As Lawrence et al. write „Religious affiliation does not necessarily protect against suicidal ideation, but does protect against suicide attempts” (Lawrence et al., 2016, p. 1).
Gearing and Alonzo, noticing in religion "a series of effective coping strategies (e.g. prayer, rituals, religious services, social networks) to support an individual managing difficulties, such as suicide" also point out that "there are aspects of religion that are now recognized as potentially representing a risk factor for increased suicide risk for some followers” (Gearing & Alonzo, 2018, p. 2493). Therefore, they highlight preventive actions that help to understand the importance of religion in a person's life and identity and then analyze the conceptualization of suicide in this religion.
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Citlak, A. Suicide Among Monotheistic Religions: Between Sacrifice, Honour and Power. J Relig Health 62, 3709–3738 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-023-01919-z
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-023-01919-z