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Conversion and Self-Transformation in Christian Monasticism: A Cognitive Perspective

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Abstract

Religious conversion involves changes in the convert’s way of thinking and behaving. This paper focuses on the unique form that this transformative process took within the Christian monastic movement in late antiquity. Treating monastic conversion as a gradual process in which the convert is an active participant, it examines the ways in which monastic converts were able to intentionally promote such a change and influence its direction. This study draws on research in cognitive psychology and neuroscience on the cognitive underpinnings of self-transformation in order to reconstruct from the literary sources of Near Eastern monasticism the strategies and training methods that late antique monks employed in order to facilitate and sustain the transformation implicated in conversion.

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Notes

  1. See James (1958 [1902]), and Nock (1961[1933]). James acknowledged the existence of conversion as a gradual process, yet religion for him was first and foremost an individual experience prior to any rational understanding of it. A generation later, Nock studied conversion in Greco-Roman antiquity using lenses prescribed by James. Nock followed James in viewing conversion as an intense, all-consuming process. He argued that Judaism and Christianity, as exclusivist and monotheistic religions, demanded much more than acceptance of a rite or the incorporation of another religion, as was the case with the Greco-Roman polytheistic religions. Consequently, he distinguished between adhesion, which he characterized participation in the traditional religions of Greece and Rome, and conversion, which involves a decision to reject old beliefs as wrong and accept new religious beliefs. For several decades, the systematic study of conversion stayed largely where James and Nock left it.

  2. For a review of recent trends in conversion research, see Rambo and Farhadian (2004, 1–24); Lamb and Bryant (1999, 1–22); Peace (2004: 8–14). For recent approaches in the study of late antique conversion, see the contributions in Marzouki and Roy (2013).

  3. See, for example, Witherup (1994). Witherup argues that: “After careful consideration I have come to believe that the NT shows a fairly uniform teaching about conversion with minimal evidence for a dramatic evolution of the concept” (p. 2). See also Rambo (1993). While acknowledging earlier researchers like William James, who focused on dramatic, singular experiences, Rambo argues that more attention should be given to the long-term psychological and sociological processes at work in conversion, and offers a heuristic model that explores the stages of the multilayered processes involved in conversion. On Christian conversion as a gradual process of transformation, see also Finn (1997).

  4. New Testament writers employ the Greek terms ἐπιστρέφειν (to turn back) and μετάνοια (to think again, to change mentality) to characterize a radical change of perspective. Both terms were later translated into Latin as conversio. On conversion and repentance in early Christianity, see Stroumsa (1999, 167–178). On the unique features of early Christian ἐπιστροφή, see also Rotman (2016: 12–37).

  5. Monastic conversion could coincide with religious conversion to Christianity (e.g., Apoph. patr. systematic collection 15.112 and 13.12), but this was not usually the case. Rather, the majority of early monastic writings that mention a conversion to the monastic life simply ignores the religious affiliation of the convert prior to his or her embarking on the monastic way. Entrance into the monastic life was often considered as “a second conversion,” following the first one of baptism. In this view, baptism does not so much establish the Christian believer in a state of grace, as it sets him or her on a journey which leads one much beyond oneself and beyond the limits of his or her own individual experience. See Veilleux (1986: 34–45). For a broader perspective on religious conversion as one type of a larger category of spiritual transformations, see Paloutzian 2015: 331–347).

  6. The main paradigm of this profound transformation was God’s transformation to humanity, as described in Paul’s letter to the Philippians (Phil 2:6–9).

  7. Plato, Republic VII 514.a to 517.a.7. A different notion, however, can be found in Politeia VII 514.a to 517.a.7. On conversion to philosophy in the Greco-Roman world, see Szalay (2013: 484–503); Nock (1961: 14–15).

  8. See Moberg (2016, esp. 67–68). Moberg shows that the sayings collected in the Apophthegmata Patrum suggest that for those who chose to become monks, this choice was more fundamental than the moment of baptism for their identity.

  9. Hadot (1995, chap. 4). Historians of Christianity have applied Hadot’s theoretical formulation of “spiritual exercises” to early monastic texts. See, for example, Sheridan (2002: 1–51) and Bitton-Ashkelony (2003: 200–221).

  10. Though Rambo and Farhadian (2004) has recently devoted a chapter to “Religious Conversion and Cognitive Neuroscience,” that chapter merely offers directions for future research and enumerates areas of research in cognitive neuroscience that may be relevant to the study of religious conversion.

  11. Nevertheless, several scholars did try to connect between these fields. For example, Paul Markham’s study of conversion attempts to relate contemporary neuroscience to John Wesley’s Methodist doctrine of conversion, see Markham (2007). For a criticism of Markham's conclusions, see Weissenbacher (2016: 347–360). See also Davis and Rambo (2005, 159–173).

  12. I follow Martin (2007, 37–55, at 51–52). See also Martin (2004: 36–44). Experimental work suggests that cultural variations are constrained in important ways by innate cognitive mechanisms. For example, the view that infants and young children indiscriminately adopt basic theories about the world around them through social learning alone has been thoroughly challenged in recent years. Novel experimental techniques have revealed that infants exhibit preferences, expectations, and knowledge that could not have been wholly acquired through social transmission. See Nisbett and Norenzayan (2002: 132–135) and Boyer (2014: 53–72).

  13. Origen, Princ. 2.9.2 (SC 252: 355–356). On Origen’s concept of satiety, see Otis (1958: 95–124).

  14. Origen, Princ. 1.4.1 (SC 252: 166) and 2.9.2 (SC 252: 354).

  15. For the influence of the Alexandrian theologians on monastic theology, see Gould (1995, 591–598) and Rubenson (1995, 55).

  16. Evagrius, KG 2.15 and 3.35 (ed. Wilhelm Frankenberg, Evagrius Ponticus, Abhandlungen der königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, Phil.-hist. Klasse, neue Folge 13.2 [Berlin: Weidmannsche Buchhandlung, 1912], 141 and 213). According to Evagrius, “Anyone who is making progress in the ascetical life (πρακτική) is reducing the passions (τὰ πάθη μειοῖ), and anyone who is making progress in contemplation (θεωρία) is reducing ignorance” (Praktikos 87 [SC 171: 678]). He also teaches that the soul operates naturally (κατὰ φύσιν) when its reasoning part (λογιστικόν) applies itself to contemplation (Praktikos 86 [SC 171: 676]). See also Athanasius, VA 20 (SC 400: 88–200). On Evagrius’ notion of contemplative prayer, see Bitton-Ashkelony (2011: 291–321).

  17. Both penitence and attentiveness were an integral part of the daily routine of late antique monks (rather than an element of the sacramental system), and worked together in order to promote and sustain the conversion process. See Bitton-Ashkelony (1999, 179–194). On attentiveness in Eastern monasticism, see Graiver (2018).

  18. Attentiveness is also closely related to the practice of watchfulness (νῆψις), defined by Hesychius the Priest as “a spiritual method (μέθοδος πνευματική) which, if sedulously practiced over a long period completely frees us with God’s help from impassioned thoughts (ἐμπαθῶν νοημάτων), impassioned words and evil actions. It leads, in so far as this is possible, to a sure knowledge of the inapprehensible God… It is, in the true sense, purity of heart” (On Watchfulness and Holiness 1 [PG 93:1480]; trans. G. E. H Palmer, Philip Sherrard, and Kallistos Ware, The Philokalia: The Complete Text, vol. 1 [London: Faber and Faber, 1983], 162).

  19. The fourth-century desert fathers employed a wide variety of formulae. Yet, between the fifth and the eighth century the Jesus Prayer emerged as a recognized spiritual method. See Ware (1986, 175–184).

  20. On these strategies, see Stewart (2011: 263–275).

  21. Diadochus, Hundred Gnostic Chapters 59 (SC 5: 119). The writings of Diadochus provide a key link between the Syrian and Egyptian traditions. John Cassian also explains that “A monk’s whole attention (omnis intentio) should constantly be fixed on one thing, and the beginnings and the roundabout turns of all his thoughts should be strenuously called back to this very thing—that is, to the recollection of God” (Coll. 24.6.1–3 [CSEL 13: 680]). Cf. Apophth. patr. N 435.

  22. John Cassian, Coll. 7.4.2 (CSEL 13: 183).

  23. On this process, see Linge (1990, 37–70, at 65).

  24. Evagrius, Praktikos 50 (SC 171: 614); cf. On Thoughts 9 (SC 438: 180); Apophth. patr. alph. Elias 4 (PG 65: 184). Evagrius specifies the benefits of this form of self-examination: “It is necessary to know these things, so that when thoughts begin to move their own particular matter (τὰς ἰδίας ὕλας), and before we are driven too far from our proper state, we may speak out to them and indicate which one is present” (Praktikos 43 [SC 171: 600]). Cf. Apophth. patr. N 670: “We must arm ourselves prior to temptations […], and in this way we will be clearly seen to be ready for them when they come upon us” (ed. Wortley, 536).

  25. John Cassian, Coll. 1.20.1 (CSEL 13: 29).

  26. Evagrius, On Thoughts 19 (SC 438: 218–219).

  27. See Hagger et al. (2009: 208–238, at 216–217) and Schneider and Fisk (1982: 160–68).

  28. See Schneider and Shiffrin (1977: 1–66).

  29. See Kihlstrom (2008, 155–180) and Baars (1993: 281–309).

  30. In one experiment, children who have stuttered for years were told to stutter deliberately for thirty seconds each time they do so involuntarily. According to the study findings, 75% stopped stuttering in a day or two. This paradoxical technique has been observed to stop a wide variety of pathological symptoms with remarkable speed. See Baars, “Why Volition Is a Foundation Problem,” 290; Cohen et al. (1990: 332–361).

  31. Baars, “Why Volition Is a Foundation Problem,” 287.

  32. Monastic writers refer to this phenomenon when they compare ascetic practice to the gradual acquisition of any profession through systematic training. According to Cassian, “The perfection of any art or discipline (artis seu disciplinae) must begin with some simple rudiments, and grow accustomed first to somewhat easy and tender beginnings, so that being nourished and trained little by little […] it may grow up and so by degrees and step by step mount up from the lowest depths to the heights: and when by these means it has […] passed the gates of the entrance of the profession (professionis), it will consequently arrive without difficulty at the […] heights of perfection” (Coll. 10.8 [CSEL 13: 294]).

  33. For example, experiential studies show that individuals can effectively regulate their emotion through their attentional deployment; see Wadlinger and Isaacowitz (2011: 75–102). See also Bommarito (2013: 93–117).

  34. For a review of the research, see Posner (1980: 3–25).

  35. See Begley (2007: 1–4). For the ways in which individuals’ experience-based neuroarchitecture is developed, see Benvenuti and Davenport (2011, 204–238, at 213–214).

  36. See Pascual-Leone et al. (2005: 377–401). However, it is important to note that merely mental training does not result in excellent piano-playing expertise in the same way that actually practicing the piano does.

  37. Studies of cortical plasticity in animals reveal that the remodeling of cortical representations by use is modulated as a function of cognitive state, and that remodeling does not occur when the stimulation is not attended to. See Merzenich and Jenkins (1993: 89–104). See also Recanzone et al. (1993: 87–103).

  38. See Davidson and Lutz (2008: 174–176) and Lutz et al. (2008: 163–169).

  39. Neuroscientist Richard Davidson, who recruited Buddhist monks to meditate inside a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) apparatus while he measured their brain activity, initiated this development. See Davidson (2003: 564–570).

  40. See Shapiro et al. (2002, 632–645). See also Moore and Malinowski (2009: 176–186).

  41. See Walsh and Shapiro (2006: 227–239); Levenson et al. (2012: 650–658).

  42. In monastic sources, this process is described as renunciation (e.g., John Climacus, Scal. 1 [PG 88: 633]). In this view, subjecting oneself to God involves renunciation of one’s own desires and selfish will. Consequently, the ascetic imperative in early monasticism involved a renunciation of self-will. On the concept of will in Gazan monasticism, see Kofsky (2006: 321–346).

  43. The Book of Paradise, Being the Histories and Sayings of the Monks and Ascetics of the Egyptian Desert According to the Recension of “Anan-Isho” of Beth Abbe, ed. and trans. E.A. Wallis Budge (London: Printed for Lady Mieux by Drugulin, 1904), 2: 1020. The anthology The Book of Paradise was compiled in the seventh century and includes a Syriac translation of The Sayings of the Desert Fathers.

  44. Psychological research on conversion has occurred primarily during two broad phases, one at the turn of the twentieth century, as psychology was establishing itself as a discipline, and one during the last third of the twentieth century and continuing to the present. On this development see Ullman (1989). On the psychology of conversion during the early period, see James (1958) and Pratt (1907). For more recent studies which apply psychological theories to the study of conversion, see Granqvist and Kirkpatrick (2004: 223–250) and Ullman (1989).

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Graiver, I. Conversion and Self-Transformation in Christian Monasticism: A Cognitive Perspective. J Relig Health 59, 1610–1625 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-019-00941-4

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-019-00941-4

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