Abstract
Prior research on the religiousness/spirituality—well-being association has largely neglected the dimension of religious/spiritual exploration, and the recent trend examining virtues, religiousness/spirituality, and well-being has predominantly involved cross-sectional data. We expanded prior research by analyzing a longitudinal model consisting of three waves of data, approximately 6 months between waves, that explored the associations between experiential avoidance, humility, patience, religious/spiritual exploration, and distinct dimensions of well-being. We used joy as an indicator of the positive emotion dimension of subjective well-being, and presence of meaning in life as an indicator of eudaimonic well-being. We used a diverse sample of emerging religious leaders attending 18 graduate theological schools across North America (N = 283; Mage = 29.81; SD = 0.51; range = 19–62; 47.7% female; 61.8% White). We observed a negative influence for initial levels of exploration on later joy and meaning in life, when initial levels of experiential avoidance were high and humility was low. In contrast, we found a positive influence for initial levels of exploration on later joy and meaning in life, when initial levels of experiential avoidance remained high and humility was high. Initial levels of patience exhibited a positive influence on meaning in life 1 year later, indirectly via greater levels of exploration at time 2. Practical implications centered on providing opportunities for individuals to explore alternative beliefs, practices and experiences, and encouraging engagement in humility and patience self-cultivation practices, each of which could move them toward greater well-being.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Availability of data and materials
Not applicable.
Code availability
Not applicable.
References
Adams, C., & Bloom, M. (2017). Flourishing in ministry: Wellbeing at work in helping professions. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 36(3), 254–260.
Aghababaei, N. (2014). God, the good life, and HEXACO: The relations among religion, subjective well-being and personality. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 17(3), 284–290. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2013.797956
Aghababaei, N., & Tekke, M. (2018). The relations among well-being outcomes and motives, religiosity, and personality factors in Malaysian muslim university students. Journal of Research and Health, 8(6), 565–571. http://jrh.gmu.ac.ir/article-1-836-en.html
Aghababaei, N., Błachnio, A., Arji, A., Chiniforoushan, M., Tekke, M., & Mehrabadi, A. F. (2016). Honesty–humility and the HEXACO structure of religiosity and well-being. Current Psychology, 35(3), 421–426. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-015-9310-5
Akhtar, S. (2019). Silent virtues: Patience, curiosity, privacy, intimacy, humility, and dignity. Routledge.
Anglim, J., Horwood, S., Smillie, L. D., Marrero, R. J., & Wood, J. K. (2020). Predicting psychological and subjective well-being from personality: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 146(4), 279–323. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000226
Arbuckle, J. L. (2019). IBM SPSS Amos 26.0 user's guide. SPSS, Inc.
Banker, C. C., & Leary, M. R. (2020). Hypo-egoic nonentitlement as a feature of humility. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 46(5), 738–753. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167219875144
Bartz, D. T., & Bartz, D. E. (2017). Humility, patience, passion, and mindset: Attributes of the effective manager. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 8(11), 42–47.
Beck, R., & Jessup, R. K. (2004). The multidimensional nature of quest motivation. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 32, 283–294. https://doi.org/10.1177/009164710403200401
Błażek, M., & Besta, T. (2012). Self-concept clarity and religious orientations: Prediction of purpose in life and self-esteem. Journal of Religion and Health, 51(3), 947–960. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-010-9407-y
Bockrath, M. F., Pargament, K. I., Wong, S., Harriott, V. A., Pomerleau, J. M., Homolka, S. J., Chaudhary, Z. B., & Exline, J. J. (2021). Religious and spiritual struggles and their links to psychological adjustment: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality. https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000400
Bond, F. W., Hayes, S. C., Bear, R. A., Carpenter, K. M., Guenole, N., Orcutt, H. K., Waltz, T., & Zettle, R. D. (2011). Preliminary psychometric properties of the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire-II: A revised measure of psychological inflexibility and experiential avoidance. Behavior Therapy, 42(4), 676–688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2011.03.007
Bowen, A. (2020). The importance of patience in Kierkegaard’s becoming self. Journal of Spiritual Formation and Soul Care, 13(2), 211–221. https://doi.org/10.1177/1939790920935077
Bronk, K. C., Riches, B. R., & Mangan, S. A. (2018). Claremont purpose scale: A measure that assesses the three dimensions of purpose among adolescents. Research in Human Development, 15(2), 101–117. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427609.2018.1441577
Brown, T. A. (2006). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. Guilford.
Byrne, B. M. (2010). Structural equation modeling with AMOS (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Case, A. D., Keyes, C. L., Huffman, K. F., Sittser, K., Wallace, A., Khatiwoda, P., Parnell, H. E., & Proeschold-Bell, R. J. (2020). Attitudes and behaviors that differentiate clergy with positive mental health from those with burnout. Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community, 48(1), 94–112. https://doi.org/10.1080/10852352.2019.1617525
Casey, M. (1986). The virtue of patience in the Western monastic tradition. Cistercian Studies, 21, 3–23.
Comer, D. R., & Sekerka, L. E. (2014). Taking time for patience in organizations. The Journal of Management Development, 33(1), 6–23. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMD-11-2013-0132
Cook, K. V., Kimball, C. N., Leonard, K. C., & Boyatzis, C. J. (2014). The complexity of quest in emerging adults’ religiosity, well-being, and identity. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 53(1), 73–89. https://doi.org/10.1111/jssr.12086
Crossman, J., & Doshi, V. (2015). When not knowing is a virtue: A business ethics perspective. Journal of Business Ethics, 131(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-014-2267-8
Deng, J., Li, T., Wang, J., & Zhang, R. (2020). Optimistically accepting suffering boosts happiness: Associations between Buddhism patience, selflessness, and subjective authentic-durable happiness. Journal of Happiness Studies, 21(1), 223–240. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-019-00083-0
Dezutter, J., Waterman, A. S., Schwartz, S. J., Luyckx, K., Beyers, W., Meca, A., Kim, S. Y., Whitbourne, S. K., Zamboanga, B. L., Lee, R. M., & Hardy, S. A. (2014). Meaning in life in emerging adulthood: A person-oriented approach. Journal of Personality, 82(1), 57–68. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12033
Eustis, E. H., Cardona, N., Nauphal, M., Sauer-Zavala, S., Rosellini, A. J., Farchione, T. J., & Barlow, D. H. (2020). Experiential avoidance as a mechanism of change across cognitive-behavioral therapy in a sample of participants with heterogeneous anxiety disorders. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 44(2), 275–286. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-019-10063-6
Falk, C. F., & Biesanz, J. C. (2016). Two cross-platform programs for inferences and interval estimation about indirect effects in mediational models. SAGE Open, 6, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244015625445
Fitzpatrick, S., Khoury, J. E., Krantz, L., Zeifman, R., & Kuo, J. R. (2019). Next-day effects of dysfunctional and functional emotion regulation and the moderating role of experiential avoidance. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 12, 22–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcbs.2019.01.003
Fowers, B. J., Carroll, J. S., Leonhardt, N. D., & Cokelet, B. (2021). The emerging science of virtue. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 16(1), 118–147. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691620924473
Francis, L. J., & Crea, G. (2016). The relationship between priestly motivational styles and personal wellbeing in ministry: Exploring the connection between religious orientation and purpose in life among Catholic priests serving in Italy. Review of Religious Research, 58(2), 219–228. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13644-015-0242-1
Gander, F., Hofmann, J., & Ruch, W. (2020). Character strengths: Person–environment fit and relationships with job and life satisfaction. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01582
Garssen, B., Visser, A., & Pool, G. (2021). Does spirituality or religion positively affect mental health? Meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 31(1), 4–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508619.2020.1729570
Genia, V. (1997). The spiritual experience index: Revision and reformulation. Review of Religious Research, 38(4), 344–361.
Gulliford, L., & Roberts, R. C. (2018). Exploring the “unity” of the virtues: The case of an allocentric quintet. Theory & Psychology, 28(2), 208–226. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354317751666
Hackney, C. H., & Sanders, G. S. (2003). Religiosity and mental health: A meta-analysis of recent studies. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 42(1), 43–55. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-5906.t01-1-00160
Haggard, M., Rowatt, W. C., Leman, J. C., Meagher, B., Moore, C., Fergus, T., Whitcomb, D., Battaly, H., Baehr, J., & Howard-Snyder, D. (2018). Finding middle ground between intellectual arrogance and intellectual servility: Development and assessment of the limitations-owning intellectual humility scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 124, 184–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.12.014
Hanssen, M. M., Vancleef, L. M. G., Vlaeyen, J. W. S., Hayes, A. F., Schouten, E. G. W., & Peters, M. L. (2015). Optimism, motivational coping and well-being: Evidence supporting the importance of flexible goal adjustment. Journal of Happiness Studies, 16(6), 1525–1537. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-014-9572-x
Hayes, A. F. (2018). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. Guilford.
Hayes, A. F., & Coutts, J. J. (2020). Use omega rather than Cronbach’s alpha for estimating reliability. But…. Communication Methods and Measures, 14(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/19312458.2020.1718629
Heene, M., Bollmann, S., & Bühner, M. (2014). Much ado about nothing, or much to do about something? Effects of scale shortening on criterion validity and mean differences. Journal of Individual Differences, 35(4), 245–249. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000146
Huta, V., & Waterman, A. S. (2014). Eudaimonia and its distinction from hedonia: Developing a classification and terminology for understanding conceptual and operational definitions. Journal of Happiness Studies, 15(6), 1425–1456. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-013-9485-0
Jankowski, P. J., & Sandage, S.J. (2014). Attachment to God and humility: Indirect effect and conditional effects models. Journal of Psychology and Theology , 42, 70–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/009164711404200108
Jankowski, P. J., Sandage, S. J., Bell, C. A., Ruffing, E. G., & Adams, C. (2019). Humility and wellbeing: Testing a relational spirituality model among religious leaders. Journal of Religion and Health , 58(1), 132–152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-018-0580-8
Jankowski, P. J., Sandage, S. J., Bell, C. A., Davis, D. E., Porter, E., Jessen, M., Motzny, C. L., Ross, K. V., & Owen, J. (2020). Virtue, flourishing, and positive psychology in psychotherapy: An overview and research prospectus. Psychotherapy, 57(3), 291–309. https://doi.org/10.1037/pst0000285
Jankowski, P., Captari, L. E., & Sandage, S. J. (2021a). Exploring virtue ethics in psychodynamic psychotherapy: Latent change in humility, affect regulation, symptoms, and well-being. Counselling and Psychotherapy. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1002/capr.12389
Jankowski, P. J., Sandage, S. J., Ruffing, E. G., Crabtree, S. A., & Bell, C. A. (2021b). A mixed method intervention study on relational spirituality and humility among emerging religious leaders. Spirituality in Clinical Practice. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/scp0000248
Jankowski, P. J., Sandage, S. J., Wang, D. C., & Hill, P. (2021c). Relational spirituality profiles and flourishing among religious leaders. The Journal of Positive Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2021.1913637
Joshanloo, M. (2019). Investigating the relationships between subjective well-being and psychological well-being over two decades. Emotion, 19(1), 183–187. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000414
Kashdan, T. B., & Kane, J. Q. (2011). Post-traumatic distress and the presence of post-traumatic growth and meaning in life: Experiential avoidance as a moderator. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(1), 84–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.08.028
Keyes, C. L., Yao, J., Hybels, C. F., Milstein, G., & Proeschold-Bell, R. J. (2020). Are changes in positive mental health associated with increased likelihood of depression over a two year period? A test of the mental health promotion and protection hypotheses. Journal of Affective Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.03.056
Kimball, C. N., Cook, K. V., Boyatzis, C. J., & Leonard, K. C. (2016). Exploring emerging adults’ relational spirituality: A longitudinal, mixed-methods analysis. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 8(2), 110–118. https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000049
Kim-Prieto, C., & Miller, L. (2018). Intersection of religion and subjective well-being. In E. Diener, S. Oishi, & L. Tay (Eds.), Handbook of well-being (pp. 1–9). DEF Publishers. https://nobascholar.com/chapters/70.
Krause, N., & Hayward, R. D. (2015). Humility, compassion, and gratitude to God: Assessing the relationships among key religious virtues. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 7(3), 192–204. https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000028
Krause, N., Hill, P. C., & Ironson, G. (2019). Evaluating the relationships among religion, social virtues, and meaning in life. Archiv Für Religionspsychologie/archive for the Psychology of Religion, 41(1), 53–70. https://doi.org/10.1177/0084672419839797
Krause, N., Ironson, G., & Hill, P. (2018). Religious involvement and happiness: Assessing the mediating role of compassion and helping others. The Journal of Social Psychology, 158(2), 256–270. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2017.1331992
Krause, N., Pargament, K. I., Hill, P. C., & Ironson, G. (2016). Humility, stressful life events, and psychological well-being: Findings from the landmark spirituality and health survey. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 11(5), 499–510. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2015.1127991
Lavelock, C. R., Worthington, E. L., Jr., Griffin, B. J., Garthe, R. C., Elnasseh, A., Davis, D. E., & Hook, J. N. (2017). Still waters run deep: Humility as a master virtue. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 45(4), 286–303. https://doi.org/10.1177/009164711704500404
Lockhart, G., MacKinnon, D. P., & Ohlrich, V. (2011). Mediation analysis in psychosomatic medicine research. Psychosomatic Medicine, 73(1), 29–43. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0b013e318200a54b
MacKinnon, D. P. (2008). Introduction to statistical mediation analysis. Taylor & Francis Group/Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
MacKinnon, D. P., Krull, J. L., & Lockwood, C. M. (2000). Equivalence of the mediation, confounding and suppression effect. Prevention Science, 1(4), 173–181. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026595011371
Marhemati, Z., & Khormaei, F. (2017). Explaining eudaimonic well-being: The role of religiousness and patience. Health, Spirituality and Medical Ethics, 4(4), 24–30.
Martínez-Martí, M. L., & Ruch, W. (2014). Character strengths and well-being across the life span: Data from a representative sample of German-speaking adults living in Switzerland. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01253
McElroy-Heltzel, S. E., Davis, D. E., DeBlaere, C., Worthington, E. L., Jr., & Hook, J. N. (2019). Embarrassment of riches in the measurement of humility: A critical review of 22 measures. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 14(3), 393–404. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2018.1460686
McGrath, R. E. (2015). Measurement invariance in translations of the VIA inventory of strengths. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 32(3), 187–194. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000248
McGrath, R. E., Greenberg, M. J., & Hall-Simmonds, A. (2018). Scarecrow, Tin Woodsman, and Cowardly Lion: The three-factor model of virtue. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 13(4), 373–392. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2017.1326518
Negru-Subtirica, O., Pop, E. I., Luyckx, K., Dezutter, J., & Steger, M. F. (2016). The meaningful identity: A longitudinal look at the interplay between identity and meaning in life in adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 52(11), 1926–1936. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000176
Negru-Subtirica, O., Tiganasu, A., Dezutter, J., & Luyckx, K. (2017). A cultural take on the links between religiosity, identity, and meaning in life in religious emerging adults. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 35(1), 106–126. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjdp.12169
Newsom, J. T. (2015). Longitudinal structural equation modeling: A comprehensive introduction. Routledge.
Owens, B. P., Johnson, M. D., & Mitchell, T. R. (2013). Expressed humility in organizations: Implications for performance, teams, and leadership. Organization Science, 24(5), 1517–1538. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.1120.0795
Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. Oxford University Press.
Pew Research Center. (2018). The religious typology. A new way to categorize Americans by religion. https://www.pewforum.org/2018/08/29/the-religious-typology/.
Proeschold-Bell, R. J., Eisenberg, A., Legrand, S., Adams, C., Smith, B., & Wilk, A. (2015). The glory of God is a human being fully alive: Predictors of positive versus negative mental health among clergy. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 54(4), 702–721. https://doi.org/10.1111/jssr.12234
Putnick, D. L., & Bornstein, M. H. (2016). Measurement invariance conventions and reporting: The state of the art and future directions for psychological research. Developmental Review, 41, 71–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2016.06.004
Rammstedt, B., & Beierlein, C. (2014). Can’t we make it any shorter? The limits of personality assessment and ways to overcome them. Journal of Individual Differences, 5(4), 212–220. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000141
Rosales, A., Fung, J., & Lee, C. (2021). Clergy well-being: The role of lived values and values fit. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 49(1), 53–66. https://doi.org/10.1177/0091647120916010
Ruffing, E. G., Bell, C. A., & Sandage, S. J. (2021). PTSD symptoms in religious leaders: Prevalence, stressors, and associations with narcissism. Archive for the Psychology of Religion, 43(1), 21–40. https://doi.org/10.1177/0084672420926261
Sandage, S. J., & Jensen, M. L. (2013). Relational spiritual formation. Reflective Practice: Formation and Supervision in Ministry, 33, 95–109. https://journals.sfu.ca/rpfs/index.php/rpfs/article/view/268/267
Sandage, S. J., Jankowski, P. J., & Link, D. C. (2010). Quest and spiritual development moderated by spiritual transformation. Journal of Psychology and Theology , 38(1), 15–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/009164711003800102
Sandage, S. J., Rupert, D., Stavros, G., & Devor, N. G. (2020). Relational spirituality in psychotherapy: Healing suffering and promoting growth. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000174-000
Schnell, T. (2021). The psychology of meaning in life. Routledge.
Schnitker, S. A. (2012). An examination of patience and well-being. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 7(4), 263–280. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2012.697185
Schnitker, S. A., Houltberg, B., Dyrness, W., & Redmond, N. (2017). The virtue of patience, spirituality, and suffering: Integrating lessons from positive psychology, psychology of religion, and Christian theology. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 9(3), 264–275. https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000099
Schnitker, S. A., Houltberg, B. J., Ratchford, J. L., & Wang, K. T. (2020). Dual pathways from religiousness to the virtue of patience versus anxiety among elite athletes. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 12(3), 294–303. https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000289
Schuurmans-Stekhoven, J. B. (2011). Is it God or just the data that moves in mysterious ways? How well-being research may be mistaking faith for virtue. Social Indicators Research, 100(2), 313–330. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-010-9630-7
Schwartz, S. J., Hardy, S. A., Zamboanga, B. L., Meca, A., Waterman, A. S., Picariello, S., Luyckx, K., Crocetti, E., Kim, S. Y., Brittian, A. S., Roberts, S. E., Whitbourne, S. K., Ritchie, R. A., Brown, E. J., & Forthun, L. F. (2015). Identity in young adulthood: Links with mental health and risky behavior. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 36, 39–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2014.10.001
Schwartz, S. J., Zamboanga, B. L., Luyckx, K., Meca, A., & Ritchie, R. A. (2013). Identity in emerging adulthood: Reviewing the field and looking forward. Emerging Adulthood, 1(2), 96–113. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696813479781
Selig, J. P., & Little, T. D. (2012). Autoregressive and cross-lagged panel analysis for longitudinal data. In B. Laursen, T. D. Little, & N. A. Card (Eds.), Handbook of developmental research methods (pp. 265–278). Guilford.
Selig, J. P., & Preacher, K. J. (2009). Mediation models for longitudinal data in developmental research. Research in Human Development, 6(2–3), 144–164. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427600902911247
Seligowski, A. V., & Orcutt, H. K. (2015). Examining the structure of emotion regulation: A factor-analytic approach. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 71(10), 1004–1022. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22197
Steger, M. F., Pickering, N. K., Adams, E., Burnett, J., Shin, J. Y., Dik, B. J., & Stauner, N. (2010). The quest for meaning: Religious affiliation differences in the correlates of religious quest and search for meaning in life. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 2(4), 206–226. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019122
Sullender, R. S. (2012). Ministerial virtues from the perspective of trait personality theory and the world of psychometrics. Reflective Practice: Formation and Supervision in Ministry, 32, 85–100. https://journals.sfu.ca/rpfs/index.php/rpfs/article/view/62/61
Sullivan, D. (2016). Cultural-existential psychology: The role of culture in suffering and threat. Cambridge University Press.
Terry, J. D., & Cunningham, C. J. (2020). The sacred and stressed: Testing a model of clergy health. Journal of Religion and Health, 59(3), 1541–1566. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-019-00920-9
Tong, E. M. W., Lum, D. J. K., Sasaki, E., & Yu, Z. (2019). Concurrent and temporal relationships between humility and emotional and psychological well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies, 20(5), 1343–1358. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-018-0002-3
Villani, D., Sorgente, A., Iannello, P., & Antonietti, A. (2019). The role of spirituality and religiosity in subjective well-being of individuals with different religious status. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01525
Vishkin, A., Bloom, P. B. N., & Tamir, M. (2019). Always look on the bright side of life: Religiosity, emotion regulation and well-being in a Jewish and Christian sample. Journal of Happiness Studies, 20(2), 427–447. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-017-9956-9
Waldeck, D., Bissell, G., & Tyndall, I. (2020). Experiential avoidance as a moderator for coping with a brief episode of ostracism: A pilot study. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 17, 68–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcbs.2020.06.002
Walker, D. A., & Smith, T. J. (2017). Computing robust, bootstrap-adjusted fit indices for use with nonnormal data. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 50(1–2), 131–137. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481756.2017.1326748
Wang, J., Li, T., Wang, K., & Wang, C. (2019). Patience as a mediator between the dark triad and meaning in life. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 14(2), 527–543. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-018-9627-y
Wang, D. C., Hall, M. E. L., Shannonhouse, L. R., Mize, M. C. B., Aten, J. D., Davis, E. B., Van Tongeren, D. R., & Annan, K. (2020). Why leader humility is vital to effective humanitarian aid leadership: A review of the literature. Disasters. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1111/disa.12446
Watkins, P. C., Emmons, R. A., Greaves, M. R., & Bell, J. (2018). Joy is a distinct positive emotion: Assessment of joy and relationship to gratitude and well-being. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 13(5), 522–539. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2017.1414298
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., Chmielewski, M., & Kotov, R. (2013). The value of suppressor effects in explicating the construct validity of symptom measures. Psychological Assessment, 25(3), 929–941. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032781
Ziegler, M., Kemper, C. J., & Kruyen, P. (2014). Short scales–Five misunderstandings and ways to overcome them. Journal of Individual Differences, 35(4), 185–189. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000148
Funding
John Templeton Foundation, #61515.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
None.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Jankowski, P.J., Murphy, S., Johnson, J. et al. The Influence of Experiential Avoidance, Humility and Patience on the Association Between Religious/Spiritual Exploration and Well-Being. J Happiness Stud 23, 2137–2156 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-021-00488-w
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-021-00488-w