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Slum-upgrading trough physical or socio-economic improvement? lessons from Bandung, Indonesia

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Abstract

Since the 1970s, slums and squatters upgrading programs have been in the discussion of scholars. The main question addressed is to what extent the programs contribute to the improvement of slum dwellers' livelihood. Based on a longitudinal study on such programs in Bandung, this study aims to compare the' programs' result on five productive assets of the community five years or more after the project completion.In Bandung, at the beginning, the programs were focused on physical improvements based on the assumption that if the physical condition is good and the tenure security is improved, then the people will help themselves. The reality, however, was different; there were no significant achievements in poverty reduction. The second generation incorporated social concern through participatory planning. The third generation attempted to improve the quality of life of squatters or slum dwellers by improving the physical condition of the slums and squatters and the dwellers' social and economic conditions after project completion.The paper argues that while the first generation of slum upgrading did not show any direct significant contribution to poverty reduction (both during and by the end of project life), the physical facilities that it developed, (which are of much better qualities and thus last much longer than facilities built in the second and third generation), indirectly enable the social economic improvement of slum-dwellers in the long term.

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Notes

  1. UH Habitat (2003) defined living in slum condition as a household lacking one or more of the following indicators: 1) access to improved water, 2) access to improved sanitation, 3) access to secure tenure, 4) durability of housing, 5) sufficient living area. Traditionally slum is defined as dilapidated settlement condition with no adequate sanitation and water, but the dwellers may legally live in the area. Whilst squatter is defined as people who occupied land or housing for living illegally. In this article, unless otherwise explained, slums and squatters are used interchangeably.

  2. The framework is developed as evaluation tools to see what impacts the slum upgrading projects in each generation have on the productive assets of the poor. Physical asset this is used to evaluate the physical condition in slum area, in order to understand physical improvement priority. It is commonly perceived as a general effort to upgrade slum area. Physical assets include housing condition and ownership, property ownership and access to infrastructure. Infrastructure improvement includes sanitation, clean water, waste management, circulation system (road and pedestrian ways), drainage, electricity system, education and health facility and public space. Natural asset this is used to evaluate whether an effort to preserve the natural asset in a slum upgrading project was made. It includes rehabilitation consideration and assistance to community to rehabilitate the natural assets. Human capital asset this is used to assess human capital in order to support community self-confidence. Parameters used in this assessment are area education, health and community willingness to be active in organization. Development of this asset is expected to increase community productivity. Social capital asset this is used to assess social relationship in the community. It is used as a tool to improve slum physical condition, such as working together for road improvement, bridge improvement, etc. Social relationship between community and government as well as and NGO can help to improve slum. Economic asset this is used to assess economic institute or credit stock role such as Koperasi (cooperative). It is an important asset development to facilitate poor inhabitant’s access to capital. Beside institute or credit stock, legalization assets such as housing and land ownership certificate can also be used as community access to capital. Security of tenure from poor community can also be used as capital to increase their income.

  3. In Indonesia’ administrative structure is stratified into two levels of autonomous regions: Province (Propinsi) and District (the municipality or Kotamadya for urban areas and the regency or Kabupaten for elsewhere). District level is further stratified into two levels: Kecamatan (sub-district) and Kelurahan for urban areas and Desa or village for rural areas.

  4. The type of simple house is defined by the Government. According to the Ministry of Finance regulation, a simple house is a 36 square meter house constructed on 60 square meter plot. This type of house is exempted from Government’s tax and the price the house each year is determined by the ministry of Finance as the following: (in Java except Jakarta, Bogor, Depok, Tangerang and Bekasi) 2014: IDR 105 Million, 2015: IDR 110,5 Million, 2016: IDR 116,5 Million, 2017: IDR: 123 Million, 2018: IDR 130 Million; 140 Million, 2019 (Nomor 81/PMK.010/2019).

  5. These Ministries in 2014 were merged into one Ministry labeled the Ministry of Public Works and Housing.

  6. During 1976 and 1997, Indonesia experienced a decreased level of poverty. In 1976, the number of poor people was 54.2 million (or 40.08% of total population). The number decreased drastically to about 22.5 million (11.34%) in 1996 and was estimated to be only 21.5 million in 1997. This was reflected by the improvement in social indicators such as health and education. The relatively stable economic growth during the last two decades was believed to have given a positive impact on the improvement of social and economic welfare.

  7. LKMD= Lembaga Ketahanan Masyarakat Desa (Community Resilience Organization); RW= Rukun Warga (Neighborhood Community Organization- consisting of 5 to 10 RT); RT= Rukun Tetangga (Households Groups - consisting of 10–15 households).

Abbreviations

ADB:

Asian Development Bank

BKM:

Badan Keswadayaan Masyarakat (Self-help Community Organisation)

BP4K:

Badan Pelaksana Penataan dan Pembangunan Permukiman Kumuh (Slum Area Planning and Development Implementing Board)

BTN:

Bank Tabungan Negara (State Saving Bank)

BUDP:

Bandung Urban Development Project

BUDS:

Bandung Urban Development Strategy

CDF:

City Development Fund

Co Bild:

Community Based Initiatives for Housing and Local Development

EBSI:

Executing Board for the Slum Improvement Program

FGD:

Focus Group Discussion

JICA:

Japan International Cooperation Agency

JPS:

Jaring Pengaman Sosial (Social Safety Net)

Kecamatan :

Sub-District

Kelurahan :

Sub Sub-District (Village)

KIP:

Kampung Improvement Program

KSM:

Kelompok Swadaya Masyarakat (Self-help Community Group)

KSU:

Koperasi Serba Usaha; General Cooperative

LKMD:

Lembaga Ketahanan Masyarakat Desa (Community Resilience Organization)

NGO:

Non-Government Organisation

NUSSP:

Neighbourhood Upgrading and Shelter Sector Project

P2BPK:

Pembangunan Perumahan yang Bertumpu Pada Kelompok (Community Based Housing Development)

P2KP:

Program Pengentasan Kemiskinan Perkotaan (Urban Poverty Alleviation Program)

P3KT:

Program Pembangunan Prasarana Kota Terpadu (Integrated Urban Infrastructure Program also known as IUIDP)

PERUMNAS:

Perusahaan Perumahan Nasional (National Land Development Company)

PLPKP2:

Peremajaan Lingkungan Perumahan Kota dan Pengembangan Permukiman (Urban Renewal and Housing Development)

PNPM:

Program Nasional Pemberdayaan Masyarakat (National Program for Community Capacity Building)

RSS:

Rumah Sangat Sederhana (Decent Housing)

RT:

Rukun Tetangga (Households Groups—consisting of 10 – 15 households)

RW:

Rukun Warga (Neighbourhood Community Organization- consisting of 5 to 10 RT)

SAPOLA:

Slum Alleviation Policy and Action Plan

SSPAP:

Squatter Settlements Pilot Assistance Program

SUL:

Sustainable Urban Livelihood

Tribina Concept:

Three-fold improvement concept i.e.: social improvement, economy improvement and physical and environment improvement

Tridaya concept:

Three-fold empowerment concept i.e.: economy, social and housing empowerment

UNEP:

United Nations Development Programs: a program sponsored by UNDP—(United Nations Development Program), known as UNEP Experiments

WB:

World Bank

UNESCAP:

United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific

WHC:

Wilhelmus Hofsteede Consultant

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Acknowledgements

The study is partially funded by the Indonesian Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher Education under World Class University (WCU) Program managed by Institut Teknologi Bandung 2019 and DIKTI research grant 2016; The authors would like to thank: Dr Tetty Armiaty Argo and Prof Tommy Firman for their valuable discussions. The authors are grateful to Irina Siregar, Eva Diana Rilva, Eka Diana Septi, Rayi Renggani and Ruth Anna Tampubolon who provided some of the information and did the field survey in 2007 and A. Gunawan who did field observation, interview and provide photos in 2015 and Prima Dea who did the research and re-interview in 2019. A special thank you is due to Ami Arnscheidt and Arum Larasati Winarso for carefully reading through the draft of the manuscript.

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    Haryo Winarso

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Winarso, H. Slum-upgrading trough physical or socio-economic improvement? lessons from Bandung, Indonesia. J Hous and the Built Environ 37, 863–887 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10901-021-09859-4

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