Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Reverse phase transformation of martensite to austenite in stainless steels: a 3D phase-field study

  • Published:
Journal of Materials Science Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The martensitic transformation of austenite as well as the reversion of martensite to austenite has been reported to significantly improve mechanical properties of steels. In the present work, three dimensional (3D) elastoplastic phase-field simulations are performed to study the kinetics of martensite reversion in stainless steels at different annealing temperatures. The input simulation data are acquired from different sources, such as CALPHAD, ab initio calculations, and experiments. The results show that the reversion occurs both at the lath boundaries as well as within the martensitic laths, which is in good agreement with the experimental observations. The reversion that occurs within the laths leads to splitting of a single martensite lath into two laths, separated by austenite. The results indicate that the reversed austenite retains a large extent of plasticity inherited from martensite.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Easterling KE, Thölen AR (1980) On the growth of martensite in steel. Acta Metall 28:1229–1234

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Ghosh G, Olson GB (1994) Kinetics of F.C.C. ? B.C.C. heterogeneous martensitic nucleationI. The critical driving force for athermal nucleation. Acta Metall Mater 42:3361–3370

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Levitas VI, Idesman AV, Olson GB, Stein E (2002) Numerical modelling of martensitic growth in an elastoplastic material. Philos Mag A 82:429–462

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Guimaraes JRC (2008) Stress assisted martensite: pre-strain, grain-size and strain-rate effects. Mater Sci Eng A 475:343–347

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Patel JR, Cohen M (1953) Criterion for the action of applied stress in the martensitic transformation. Acta Metall 1:531–538

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Olson GB, Cohen M (1975) Kinetics of strain-induced martensitic nucleation. Metall Trans A 6A:791–795

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Talonen J, Hanninen H (2007) Formation of shear bands and strain-induced martensite during plastic deformation of metastable austenitic stainless steels. Acta Mater 55:6108–6118

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Dmitrieva O, Ponge D, Inden G, Millan J, Choi P, Sietsma J, Raabe D (2011) Chemical gradients across phase boundaries between martensite and austenite in steel studied by atom probe tomography and simulation. Acta Mater 59:364–374

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Raabe D, Ponge D, Dmitrieva O, Sander B (2009) Nanoprecipitate-hardened 1.5 GPa steels with unexpected high ductility. Scripta Mater 60:1141–1144

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Schnitzer R, Zickler GA, Lach E, Clemens H, Zinner S, Lippmann T, Leitner H (2010) Influence of reverted austenite on static and dynamic mechanical properties of a PH 13-8 Mo maraging steel. Mater Sci Eng A 527:2065–2070

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Raabe D, Ponge D, Dmitrieva O, Sander B (2009) Designing ultrahigh strength steels with good ductility by combining transformation induced plasticity and martensite aging. Adv Eng Mater 11:547–555

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Di Schino A, Barteri M, Kenny JM (2002) Development of ultra fine grain structure by martensitic reversion in stainless steel. J Mater Sci Lett 21:751–753

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Maki T (1997) Stainless steel: progress in thermomechanical treatment. Curr Opin Solid State Mater Sci 2:290–295

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Forouzan F, Najafizadeh A, Kermanpur A, Hedayati A, Surkialiabad R (2010) Production of nano/submicron grained AISI 304L stainless steel through the martensite reversion process. Mater Sci Eng A 527:7334–7339

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Shirazi H, Miyamoto G, Nedjad SH, Nanesa HG, Ahmadabadi MN, Furuhara T (2013) Microstructural evaluation of austenite reversion during intercritical annealing of FeNiMn martensitic steel. J Alloys Compd 577:S572–S577

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Di Schino A, Salvatori I, Kenny JM (2002) Effects of martensite formation and austenite reversion on grain refining of AISI 304 stainless steel. J Mater Sci 37:4561–4565

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Misra RDK, Nayak S, Venkatasurya PKC, Ramuni V, Somani MC, Karjalainen LP (2010) Nanograined/ultrafine-grained structure and tensile deformation behavior of shear phase reversion-induced 301 sustenitic stainless steel. Metall Mater Trans A 41A:2162–2174

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Misra RDK, Zhang Z, Venkatasurya PKC, Somani MC, Karjalainen LP (2010) Martensite shear phase reversion-induced nanograined/ultrafine-grained Fe-16Cr-10Ni alloy: the effect of interstitial alloying elements and degree of austenite stability on phase reversion. Mater Sci Eng A 527:7779–7792

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Raabe D, Sandlöbes S, Millan J, Ponge D, Assadi H, Herbig M, Choi PP (2013) Segregation engineering enables nanoscale martensite to austenite phase transformation at grain boundaries: a pathway to ductile martensite. Acta Mater 61:6132–6152

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Smith H, West DRF (1973) Reversion of martensite to austenite in certain stainless-steels. J Mater Sci 8:1413–1420

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Guy KB, Butler EP, West DRF (1983) Reversion of BCC alpha’ martensite in Fe–Cr–Ni austenitic stainless-steels. Met Sci 17:167–176

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Tomimura K, Takaki S, Tokunaga Y (1991) Reversion mechanism from deformation induced martensite to austenite in metastable austenitic stainless-steels. ISIJ Int 31:1431–1437

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Lee YK, Shin HC, Leem DS, Choi JY, Jin W, Choi CS (2003) Reverse transformation mechanism of martensite to austenite and amount of retained austenite after reverse transformation in Fe-3Si-13Cr-7Ni (wt-%) martensitic stainless steel. Mater Sci Tech 19:393–398

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Huang J, Ye X, Gu J, Chen X, Xu Z (2012) Enhanced mechanical properties of type AISI301LN austenitic stainless steel through advanced thermo mechanical process. Mater Sci Eng A 532:190–195

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Sietsma J, van der Zwaag S (2004) A concise model for mixed-mode phase transformations in the solid state. Acta Mater 52:4143–4152

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Chen LQ (2002) Phase-field models for microstructure evolution. Annu Rev Mater Res 32:113–140

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Moelans N, Blanpain B, Wollants P (2008) An introduction to phase-field modeling of microstructure evolution. CALPHAD 32:268–294

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Wang Y, Khachaturyan AG (1997) Three-dimensional field model and computer modeling of martensitic transformations. Acta Mater 45:759–773

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Yeddu HK, Ågren J, Borgenstam A (2011) 3D Phase Field Modeling of Martensitic Microstructure Evolution in Steels. Solid State Phenom 172-174:1066–1071

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Levitas VI, Lee DW, Preston DL (2010) Interface propagation and microstructure evolution in phase field models of stress-induced martensitic phase transformations. Int J Plast 26:395–422

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Khachaturyan AG (1983) Theory of structural transformations in solids. Wiley, New York

    Google Scholar 

  32. Yeddu HK (2012) Martensitic transformations in steels—a 3D phase-field study. Dissertation, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden

  33. Artemev A, Wang Y, Khachaturyan AG (2000) Three-dimensional phase field model and simulation of martensitic transformation in multilayer systems under applied stresses. Acta Mater 48:2503–2518

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Yeddu HK, Malik A, Ågren J, Amberg G, Borgenstam A (2012) Three-dimensional phase-field modeling of martensitic microstructure evolution in steels. Acta Mater 60:1538–1547

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Artemev A, Jin Y, Khachaturyan AG (2001) Three-dimensional phase field model of proper martensitic transformation. Acta Mater 49:1165–1177

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Yeddu HK, Borgenstam A, Hedström P, Ågren J (2012) A phase-field study of the physical concepts of martensitic transformations in steels. Mater Sci Eng A 538:173–181

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Bhattacharya K, Contis S, Zanzotto G, Zimmer J (2004) Crystal symmetry and the reversibility of martensitic transformations. Nature 428:55–59

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Kundin J, Raabe D, Emmerich H (2011) A phase-field model for incoherent martensitic transformations including plastic accommodation processes in the austenite. J Mech Phys Solids 59:2082–2102

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Yeddu HK, Borgenstam A, Ågren J (2013) Effect of martensite embryo potency on the martensitic transformations in steels—a 3D phase-field study. J Alloys Compd 577:S141–S146

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Saxena A, Bishop AR, Shenoy SR, Lookman T (1998) Computer simulation of martensitic textures. Comput Mater Sci 10:16–21

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Yeddu HK, Borgenstam A, Ågren J (2013) Stress-assisted martensitic transformations in steels: a 3-D phase-field study. Acta Mater 61:2595–2606

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Shenoy SR, Lookman T, Saxena A, Bishop AR (1999) Martensitic textures: multiscale consequences of elastic compatibility. Phys Rev B 60:R12537–R12541

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Yeddu HK, Razumovskiy VI, Borgenstam A, Korzhavyi PA, Ruban AV, Ågren J (2012) Multi-length scale modeling of martensitic transformations in stainless steels. Acta Mater 60:6508–6517

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Ahluwalia R, Lookman T, Saxena A (2006) Dynamic strain loading of cubic to tetragonal martensites. Acta Mater 54:2109–2120

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Yeddu HK, Lookman T, Saxena A (2013) Strain-induced martensitic transformation in stainless steels: a three-dimensional phase-field study. Acta Mater 61:6972–6982

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Yamanaka A, Takaki T, Tomita Y (2008) Elastoplastic phase-field simulation of self- and plastic accommodations in Cubic tetragonal martensitic transformation. Mater Sci Eng A 491:378–384

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Rodney D, Le Bouar Y, Finel A (2003) Phase field methods and dislocations. Acta Mater 51:17–30

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Yeddu HK, Lookman T, Saxena A (2014) The simultaneous occurrence of martensitic transformation and reversion of martensite. Mater Sci Eng A 594:48–51

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Morito S, Huang X, Furuhara T, Maki T, Hansen N (2006) The morphology and crystallography of lath martensite in alloy steels. Acta Mater 54:5323–5331

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Guo Z, Lee CS, Morris Jr. JW (2004) On coherent transformations in steel. Acta Mater 52:5511–5518

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Suikkanen PP, Cayron C, DeArdo AJ, Karjalainen LP (2011) Crystallographic analysis of martensite in 0.2C–2.0Mn–1.5Si–0.6Cr steel using EBSD. J Mater Sci Tech 27:920–930

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Guo XH, Shi SQ, Ma XQ (2005) Elastoplastic phase field model for microstructure evolution. Appl Phys Lett 87:221910

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Grimvall G (1999) Thermophysical properties of materials, 1st edn. Elsevier, The Netherlands

    Google Scholar 

  54. Sandvik BPJ, Martikainen HO, Lindroos VK (1984) The crystallography and microstructure of lath martensite formed in type-301 stainless-steel. Scripta Metall 18:81–86

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Kelly PM (1965) Martensite transformation in steels with low stacking fault energy. Acta Metall 13:635–646

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Yuan L, Ponge D, Wittig J, Choi P, Jimenez JA, Raabe D (2012) Nanoscale austenite reversion through partitioning, segregation and kinetic freezing: example of a ductile 2 GPa Fe–Cr–C steel. Acta Mater 60:2790–2804

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Mescheryakov YI, Divakov AK (2001) Affect of shock-induced phase transformations on dynamic strength of titanium alloys. Int J Impact Eng 26:497–508

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Tewari R, Srivastava D, Dey GK, Chakravarty JK, Banerjee S (2008) Microstructural evolution in zirconium based alloys. J Nucl Mater 383:153–171

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Andersson JO, Helander T, Höglund L, Shi PF, Sundman B (2002) Thermo-Calc and DICTRA, computational tools for materials science. CALPHAD 26:273–312

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Murr LE, Wong GI, Horylev RJ (1973) Measurement of interfacial free-energies and associated temperature coefficients in 304-stainless steel. Acta Metall 21:595–604

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Sahu P (2005) Bainite and stress-induced martensite in an AISI type 300 steel: an X-ray diffraction study of the microstructure by the Rietveld method. J Appl Crystallogr 38:112–120

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Teklu A, Ledbetter H, Kim S, Boatner LA, McGuire M, Keppens V (2004) Single-crystal elastic constants of Fe–15Ni–15Cr alloy. Metall Mater Trans A 35A:3149–3154

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Callister Jr. WD (2001) Fundamentals of materials science and engineering. Wiley, New York

    Google Scholar 

  64. Krauss G (1999) Martensite in steel: strength and structure. Mater Sci Eng A 273–275:40–57

    Article  Google Scholar 

  65. Amberg G, Tönhardt R, Winkler C (1999) Finite element simulations using symbolic computing. Math Comput Sim 49:257–274

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. Do-Quang M, Villanueva W, Singer-Loginova I, Amberg G (2007) Parallel adaptive computation of some time-dependent materials-related microstructural problems. Bull Pol Acad Sci-Tech Sci 55:229–237

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Dr. Minh Do Quang at KTH Royal Institute of Technology for his help with the femLego software. This work was supported by the U.S. Department of Energy.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Theoretical Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, 87545, USA

    Hemantha Kumar Yeddu, Turab Lookman & Avadh Saxena

Authors
  1. Hemantha Kumar Yeddu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Turab Lookman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Avadh Saxena
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Hemantha Kumar Yeddu.

Appendix A

Appendix A

The input data for the simulations are:

  1. 1.

    The simulation domain is a single grain of austenite with a physical size of 1 μm.

  2. 2.

    A spherical martensite nucleus, with a radius of 0.1 μm, is considered to pre-exist in the center of the simulation domain.

  3. 3.

    Thermodynamic parameters corresponding to an Fe–17 %Cr–7 %Ni alloy, expressed in weight percent, are considered.

  4. 4.

    Martensite start temperature M s (=263 K) for the above alloy is acquired from experiments [54].

  5. 5.

    The corresponding driving force (=−3600 J/mol) at M s as well as the driving forces −870, −280, 0, +150, and +185 J/mol at different annealing temperatures, viz. 705, 830, 910, 975, and 1010 K, respectively, are calculated by using the Thermo-Calc software, which is based on the CALPHAD method, with the TCFE6 database [59].

  6. 6.

    The interface thickness, δ, is taken as 1 nm and the interfacial energy, γ, as 0.01 J/m2 [60].

  7. 7.

    Bain strains, \(\epsilon_1=0.1316 \) and \(\epsilon_3=-0.1998\), are calculated based on the experimentally measured lattice constants of austenite (a FCC = 3.5918 Å) and martensite (a BCC = 2.874 Å) [61], corresponding to an alloy with a similar composition as mentioned above.

  8. 8.

    The elastic constants for austenite (FCC) are acquired from experimental measurements [62] C 11 = 209 GPa,  C 12 = 133 GPa and C 44 = 121 GPa.

  9. 9.

    The elastic constants for martensite (BCC) are acquired from ab-initio calculations [43] C 11 = 248 GPa, C 12 = 110 GPa, and C 44 = 120 GPa.

  10. 10.

    The yield limits considered for austenite and martensite are σ aust y  = 500 MPa [63] and σ mart y  = 800 MPa [64], respectively.

  11. 11.

    k in Eq. (10) is determined from the simulations such that the growth of martensite starts at the experimental M s temperature.

  12. 12.

    Iso-surfaces of the phase-field variable (η = 0.5) are shown in all the figures. The red-, blue-, and green-colored iso-surfaces of the phase-field variables correspond to martensitic variants-1, 2, and 3, respectively. t * indicates the dimensionless time.

  13. 13.

    As the experimental data related to the mobility of the martensitic interface are ambiguous, the matrix of kinetic parameters L pq in Eq. (1) that governs the mobility of the martensitic interface is considered to be the identity matrix. A non-identity matrix of the interface mobility data might lead to slightly anisotropic microstructure. The interface mobility could probably be calculated by molecular dynamics simulations.

  14. 14.

    The entire mathematical formulation, explained above, is solved by using tetrahedral finite elements and by using Dirichlet boundary conditions. Computations are performed on different meshes having grid points ranging from 50 × 50 × 50 up to 150 × 150 × 150 using FemLego software [65, 66]. The results remained unaffected even with a denser grid and hence all the simulations are performed on a 50 × 50 × 50 mesh.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Yeddu, H.K., Lookman, T. & Saxena, A. Reverse phase transformation of martensite to austenite in stainless steels: a 3D phase-field study. J Mater Sci 49, 3642–3651 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-014-8067-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-014-8067-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation