Abstract
Parental incarceration is a risk factor for a variety of adverse health and social outcomes among youth, including an increased risk of mental health problems. Yet, little information exists on what protects youth who have been impacted by parental incarceration from experiencing negative outcomes. Developmental assets, including empowerment, positive identity, and social competency, are constructs that have been shown to support positive youth development and protect youth from experiencing adverse outcomes in the presence of risks. However, there is a dearth of research on developmental assets and their protective potential among this specific population. Self-reported developmental assets were compared among youth who reported having a parent currently or formerly incarcerated, or no history of parental incarceration using a statewide cross-sectional survey of adolescents (N = 113,281). A series of logistic regressions were then performed including interaction terms, which assessed whether developmental assets served as protective factors for depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation. Developmental asset scores and internalizing symptoms varied significantly by youths’ parental incarceration status and higher levels of developmental assets moderated the associations between parental incarceration and internalizing symptoms. Development assets were protective for all youth in this study, but the effect size was not as strong for youth with currently incarcerated parents. Promoting the developmental assets of youth affected by parental incarceration may reduce the potential for adverse mental health outcomes among this population.
Highlights
-
Developmental asset scores and internalizing symptoms varied significantly by youths’ parental incarceration history.
-
Higher levels of developmental assets moderated the associations between parental incarceration and internalizing symptoms.
-
The protective effects of developmental assets on internalizing symptoms differed based on youths’ parental incarceration history.
-
Promoting developmental assets has the potential to reduce the risk for internalizing symptoms among youth affected by parental incarceration.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Andersen, L. H. (2016). How children’s educational outcomes and criminality vary by duration and frequency of paternal incarceration. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 665(1), 149–170. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716216632782.
Arditti, J. A. (2012). Child trauma within the context of parental incarceration: A family process perspective. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 4, 181–219. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1756-2589.2012.00128.x.
Arditti, J. A., & Johnson, E. I. (2022). A family resilience agenda for understanding and responding to parental incarceration. American Psychologist, 77, 56–70. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000687.
Arditti, J. A., & McGregor, C. M. (2019). A family perspective: Caregiving and family contexts of children with an incarcerated parent. In J. M. Eddy, & J. Poehlmann-Tynan (Eds.), Handbook on children with incarcerated parents: Research, policy, and practice (pp. 117–130). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16707-3.
Bailey, Z. D., Krieger, N., Agénor, M., Graves, J., Linos, N., & Bassett, M. T. (2017). Structural racism and health inequities in the USA: Evidence and interventions. The Lancet, 389(10077), 1453–1463. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30569-X.
Barnes, A. J., Gilbertson, J., & Chatterjee, D. (2018). Emotional health among youth experiencing family homelessness. Pediatrics. 141 (4). https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2017-1767.
Benson, P., Scales, P., & Syvertsen, A. (2011). The contribution of the developmental assets framework to positive youth development theory and practice. Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 41, 197–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-386492-5.00008-7.
Benson, P. L., Scales, P. C., Leffert, N., & Roehlkepartain, E. C. (1999). A fragile foundation: The state of developmental assets among American youth. Search Institute.
Bernat, D. H., & Resnick, M. D. (2006). Healthy youth development: Science and strategies. Journal of Public Health Management and Practice, 12, S10–S16. https://doi.org/10.1097/00124784-200611001-00004.
Bethell, C., Jones, J., Gombojav, N., Linkenbach, J., & Sege, R. (2019). Positive childhood experiences and adult mental and relational health in a statewide sample: Associations across adverse childhood experiences levels. JAMA Pediatrics, 173(11), e193007. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2019.3007.
Boch, S. J., & Ford, J. L. (2018). Health outcomes of youth in the United States exposed to parental incarceration: An integrative review. Journal of Forensic Nursing, 14(2), 61–71. https://doi.org/10.1097/JFN.0000000000000201.
Boch, S. J., Warren, B. J., & Ford, J. L. (2019). Attention, externalizing, and internalizing problems of youth exposed to parental incarceration. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 40(6), 466–475. https://doi.org/10.1080/01612840.2019.1565872.
Bomysoad, R. N., & Francis, L. A. (2021). Associations between parental incarceration and youth mental health conditions: The mitigating effects of adolescent resilience and positive coping strategies. Current Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-01351-0.
Burnson, C., & Weymouth, L. (2019). Infants and young children with incarcerated parents. In J. M. Eddy, & J. Poehlmann-Tynan (Eds.), Handbook on children with incarcerated parents: Research, policy, and practice (pp. 85–99). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16707-3_7.
Clayborne, Z. M., Varin, M., & Colman, I. (2019). Systematic review and meta-analysis: Adolescent depression and long-term psychosocial outcomes. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 58(1), 72–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2018.07.896.
Dallaire, D. H., & Zeman, J. L. (2013). Empathy as a protective factor for children with incarcerated parents. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 78(3), 7–25.
Dallaire, D. H., Zeman, J. L., & Thrash, T. M. (2015). Children’s experiences of maternal incarceration-specific risks: Predictions to psychological maladaptation. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 44(1), 109–122. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2014.913248.
Damon, W., & Lerner, R. M. (Eds.) (2008). Child and adolescent development: An advanced course. Wiley.
Davis, L., & Shlafer, R. J. (2017). Mental health of adolescents with currently and formerly incarcerated parents. Journal of Adolescence, 54, 120–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.10.006.
Eddy, J. M., & Poehlmann, J. (Eds.) (2019). Handbook on children with incarcerated parents: Research, policy, and practice (2nd ed.). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16707-3.
Fergus, S., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2005). Adolescent resilience: A framework for understanding healthy development in the face of risk. Annual Review of Public Health, 26(1), 399–419. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.26.021304.144357.
Geller, A., Garfinkel, I., Cooper, C. E., & Mincy, R. B. (2009). Parental incarceration and child well-being: Implications for urban families. Social Science Quarterly, 90(5), 1186–1202. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6237.2009.00653.x.
Ginwright, S., & Cammarota, J. (2002). New terrain in youth development: The promise of a social justice approach. Social Justice, 29(4), 82–95.
Glaze, L., & Maruschak, L. (2010). Parents in prison and their minor children (NCJ 222984). Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice. https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/pptmc.pdf.
Glied, S., & Pine, D. S. (2002). Consequences and correlates of adolescent depression. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 156(10), 1009–1014. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.156.10.1009.
Goldman, A. W., Andersen, L. H., Andersen, S. H., & Wildeman, C. (2019). Can alternatives to incarceration enhance child well-being? In J. M. Eddy, & J. Poehlmann-Tynan (Eds.), Handbook on children with incarcerated parents: Research, policy, and practice (pp. 237–248). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16707-3_16.
Hagen, K. A., Myers, B. J., & Mackintosh, V. H. (2005). Hope, social support, and behavioral problems in at-risk children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 75(2), 211–219. https://doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.75.2.211.
Haskins, A. R., Amorim, M., & Mingo, M. (2018). Parental incarceration and child outcomes: Those at risk, evidence of impacts, methodological insights, and areas of future work. Sociology Compass, 12(3), e12562. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12562.
Hays-Grudo, J., Morris, A. S., Beasley, L., Ciciolla, L., Shreffler, K., & Croff, J. (2021). Integrating and synthesizing adversity and resilience knowledge and action: The ICARE model. American Psychologist, 76(2), 203–215. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000766.
Johnson, E. I., Arditti, J. A., & McGregor, C. M. (2018). Risk, protection, and adjustment among youth with incarcerated and non-resident parents: A mixed-methods study. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27(6), 1914–1928. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1045-0.
Johnson, E. I., Kilpatrick, T., Bolland, A., & Bolland, J. (2020). Positive youth development in the context of household member contact with the criminal justice system. Children and Youth Services Review, 114, 105033. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105033.
Johnson, R. (2009). Ever-increasing levels of parental incarceration and the consequences for children. In S. Raphael, & M. Stoll (Eds.), Do prisons make us safer? The benefits and costs of the prison boom (pp. 177–206). Russell Sage Foundation.
Kjellstrand, J., Yu, G., Eddy, J., & Clark, M. (2019). Children with incarcerated parents and developmental trajectories of internalizing problems across adolescence. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 45. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-019-09494-4.
Kjellstrand, J., Yu, G., Eddy, J. M., Clark, M., & Jackson, A. (2020). The role of parental incarceration in predicting trajectories of child internalizing problems. Children and Youth Services Review, 115, 105055. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105055.
Konopka, G. (1973). Requirements for healthy development of adolescent youth. Adolescence, 8(31), 291–316.
Kremer, K. P., Poon, C. Y. S., Jones, C. L., Hagler, M. A., Kupersmidt, J. B., Stelter, R. L., Stump, K. N., & Rhodes, J. E. (2020). Risk and resilience among children with incarcerated parents: Examining heterogeneity in delinquency and school outcomes. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 29(11), 3239–3252. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-020-01822-1.
Kroenke, K., Spitzer, R. L., & Williams, J. B. W. (2003). The Patient Health Questionnaire-2: Validity of a two-item depression screener. Medical Care, 41(11), 1284–1292. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.MLR.0000093487.78664.3C.
Laakso, J., & Nygaard, J. (2012). Children of incarcerated parents: How a mentoring program can make a difference. Social Work in Public Health, 27(1/2), 12–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/19371918.2012.629892.
Leffert, N., Benson, P. L., Scales, P. C., Sharma, A. R., Drake, D. R., & Blyth, D. A. (1998). Developmental assets: Measurement and prediction of risk behaviors among adolescents. Applied Developmental Science, 2(4), 209–230. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532480xads0204_4.
Luther, K. (2016). Stigma management among children of incarcerated parents. Deviant Behavior, 37(11), 1264–1275. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2016.1170551.
Maruschak, L. M., Bronson, J., & Alper, M. (2021). Parents in prison and their minor children: Survey of prison inmates, 2016 (NCJ 252645). Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice. https://bjs.ojp.gov/content/pub/pdf/pptmcspi16st.pdf.
Min, M. O., Yoon, D., Minnes, S., Ridenour, T., & Singer, L. T. (2019). Profiles of individual assets and mental health symptoms in at-risk early adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 75, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.06.012.
Minnesota Department of Education. (2016). 2016 Minnesota Student Survey Statewide Tables.
Minton, T., Beatty, L. G., & Zeng, Z. (2021). Correctional populations in the United States, 2019—statistical tables (NCJ 300655). Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice. https://bjs.ojp.gov/library/publications/correctional-populations-united-states-2019-statistical-tables.
Morris, A. S., Hays-Grudo, J., Zapata, M. I., Treat, A., & Kerr, K. L. (2021). Adverse and protective childhood experiences and parenting attitudes: The role of cumulative protection in understanding resilience. Adversity and Resilience Science, 2(3), 181–192. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42844-021-00036-8.
Muentner, L., Heard-Garris, N., & Shlafer, R. (2022). Parental incarceration among youth. Pediatrics, 150(6), e2022056703. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2022-056703.
Murphey, D., & Cooper, M. (2015). Parents behind bars: What happens to their children?. Child Trends. https://www.childtrends.org/publications/parents-behind-bars-what-happens-to-their-children.
Murray, J., Farrington, D. P., & Sekol, I. (2012). Children’s antisocial behavior, mental health, drug use, and educational performance after parental incarceration: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 138(2), 175–210. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026407.
Nesmith, A., & Ruhland, E. (2008). Children of incarcerated parents: Challenges and resiliency, in their own words. Children and Youth Services Review, 30(10), 1119–1130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2008.02.006.
Nichols, E. B., Loper, A. B., & Meyer, J. P. (2016). Promoting educational resiliency in youth with incarcerated parents: The impact of parental incarceration, school characteristics, and connectedness on school outcomes. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 45(6), 1090–1109. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-015-0337-6.
Peterson, B., Cramer, L., & Fontaine, J. (2019). Policies and practices for children of incarcerated parents: Summarizing what we know and do not know. In J. M. Eddy, & J. Poehlmann-Tynan (Eds.), Handbook on children with incarcerated parents: Research, policy, and practice (pp. 331–343). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16707-3_22.
Phillips, S. D., & Gates, T. (2011). A conceptual framework for understanding the stigmatization of children of incarcerated parents. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 20(3), 286–294. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-010-9391-6.
Poehlmann, J., Dallaire, D., Loper, A. B., & Shear, L. D. (2010). Children’s contact with their incarcerated parents: Research findings and recommendations. The American Psychologist, 65(6), 575–598. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020279.
Project WHAT! (2016). We’re here and talking: Project WHAT!’s research findings and policy recommendations concerning children of incarcerated parents in San Francisco. http://communityworkswest.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/Project-WHAT-Policy-Report-Final.pdf.
Richardson, L. P., Rockhill, C., Russo, J. E., Grossman, D. C., Richards, J., McCarty, C., McCauley, E., & Katon, W. (2010). Evaluation of the PHQ-2 as a brief screen for detecting major depression among adolescents. Pediatrics, 125(5), e1097–e1103. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2009-2712.
Scales, P. C., & Leffert, N. (2004). Developmental assets: A synthesis of the scientific research on adolescent development. Search Institute.
Shlafer, R. J., Davis, L., & Dallaire, D. H. (2019a). Parental incarceration during middle childhood and adolescence. In J. M. Eddy & J. Poehlmann-Tynan (Eds.), Handbook on children with incarcerated parents: Research, policy, and practice (pp. 101–116). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16707-3_8.
Shlafer, R. J., Duwe, G., & Hindt, L. (2019b). Parents in prison and their minor children: Comparisons between state and national estimates. The Prison Journal, 99(3), 310–328. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032885519836996.
Shlafer, R. J., Poehlmann, J., Coffino, B., & Hanneman, A. (2009). Mentoring children with incarcerated parents: Implications for research, practice, and policy. Family Relations, 58(5), 507–519. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2009.00571.x.
Smokowski, P. R., Guo, S., Rose, R., Evans, C. B. R., Cotter, K. L., & Bacallao, M. (2014). Multilevel risk factors and developmental assets for internalizing symptoms and self-esteem in disadvantaged adolescents: Modeling longitudinal trajectories from the Rural Adaptation Project. Development and Psychopathology, 26, 1495–1513. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579414001163.
Soltes, F. (2012). Girl Scouts Beyond Bars: Providing a better path. U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/249001.pdf.
Turanovic, J. J., Rodriquez, N., & Pratt, T. C. (2012). The collateral consequences of incarceration revisited: A qualitative analysis of the effects on caregivers of children of incarcerated parents. Criminology, 4, 913–960.
Turney, K. (2014). Stress proliferation across generations? Examining the relationship between parental incarceration and childhood health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 55(3), 302–319. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146514544173.
Turney, K. (2018). Adverse childhood experiences among children of incarcerated parents. Children and Youth Services Review, 89, 218–225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.04.033.
Viner, R. M., Ozer, E. M., Denny, S., Marmot, M., Resnick, M., Fatusi, A., & Currie, C. (2012). Adolescence and the social determinants of health. The Lancet, 379(9826), 1641–1652. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60149-4.
Zeng, Z., & Minton, T. (2021). Jail inmates in 2019 (NCJ 255608). Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice. https://bjs.ojp.gov/library/publications/jail-inmates-2019.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported with funds from the Maternal and Child Health Bureau (MCHB), Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA) of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) (T71MC00006; R. Sieving, PI). The contents are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily represent the official views of, nor an endorsement, by HRSA, HHS, or the U.S. Government.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Pfluger, L.R., Parks, M.J. & Shlafer, R.J. The Protective Effects of Developmental Assets on Internalizing Symptoms among Youth Impacted by Parental Incarceration. J Child Fam Stud 32, 1344–1359 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-022-02518-4
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-022-02518-4