Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Positive Parenting Scale (E2P): Evidence of Validity and Reliability in a Chilean Sample

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Child and Family Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study investigated the reliability and validity of the new versions of the Positive Parenting Scale (E2P), a series of eight questionnaires designed to assess the frequency of parenting practices in parents of children from 0 months to 17 years of age. Participants were Chilean parents of healthy children (N = 3187) residing in an urban city of Chile. Content validity granted by independent expert judges and confirmatory factor analysis were conducted for each questionnaire. Evidence of convergent and discriminant validity with other scales was also collected. The new versions of E2P Positive Parenting Scale demonstrated robust evidence of structural and content validity, and a pattern of correlations between independent scales and E2P factors consistent with hypothesized expectations, that serve as evidence of convergent and discriminant validity. Reliability of the eight final questionnaires was good to excellent. Considering this evidence, we concluded that the new versions of E2P Positive Parenting Scale are a valid, reliable, feasible, and free access measures for assessing parenting practices in parents of children from 0 months to 17 years in Chilean families. The findings of the confirmatory factor analysis provide support to the theoretical scheme of relational, formative, protective, and reflective parental competencies on which the questionnaire is based.

Highlights

  • Evidence of validity and reliability of the Positive Parenting Scale (E2P) in a sample of 3187 Chilean parents is presented.

  • Eight different versions of the E2P scale were developed to address differences in parenting children of different ages.

  • The results provide robust evidence of structural, content, convergent and discriminant validity, and excellent reliability of all versions of E2P.

  • The findings of the confirmatory factor analysis provide support to the theoretical scheme of relational, formative, protective and reflective parental competencies proposed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abidin, R. R. (1995). Parenting stress index professional manual (3rd ed.). Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.

  • American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, Joint Committee on Standards for Educational, Psychological Testing (US), & National Council on Measurement in Education. (2014). Standards for educational and psychological testing. American Educational Research Association.

  • Anthony, L. G., Anthony, B. J., Glanville, D. N., Naiman, D. Q., Waanders, C., & Shaffer, S. (2005). The relationships between parenting stress, parenting behaviour and preschoolers’ social competence and behaviour problems in the classroom. Infant and Child Development: An International Journal of Research and Practice, 14(2), 133–154. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.385.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Appleyard, K., Egeland, B., Dulmen, M. H. M., & Sroufe, L. A. (2005). When more is not better: The role of cumulative risk in child behavior outcomes. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 235–245. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00351.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aracena, M., Gómez, E., Undurraga, C., Leiva, L., Marinkovic, K., & Molina, Y. (2016). Validity and reliability of the Parenting Stress Index Short Form (PSI-SF) applied to a Chilean sample. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25(12), 3554–3564. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-016-0520-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baglin, J. (2014). Improving your exploratory factor analysis using ordinal data: a demonstration using FACTOR. Practical assesment, research and evaluation, 19(5). https://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1317&context=parehttps://doi.org/10.7275/dsep-4220.

  • Barudy, J., & Dantagnan, M. (2005). Buenos tratos a la infancia: parentalidad, apego y resiliencia. Barcelona: Gedisa.

  • Barudy, J., & Dantagnan, M. (2010). Los desafíos invisibles de ser madre o padre. Manual de evaluación de las competencias y la resiliencia parental. Barcelona: Editorial Gedisa.

  • Bornstein, M., & Putnick, D. (2012). Cognitive and socioemotional caregiving in developing countries. Child Development, 83(1), 46–61. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01673.x.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bornstein, M., Tamis-LeMonda, C., Hahn, C. H., & Haynes, M. (2008). Maternal responsiveness to young children at three ages: Longitudinal analysis of a multidimensional, modular, and specific parenting construct. Developmental Psychology in The Public Domain, 44, 867–874. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.44.3.867.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, B. B., Mounts, N., Lamborn, S. D., & Steinberg, L. (1993). Parenting practices and peer group affiliation in adolescence. Child Development, 64(2), 467–482. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1993.tb02922.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, P., Capella, C., & Antivilo, A. (2014). Propiedades psicométricas de la versión para padres del Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Revista de Psicología, 23(2), 28–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, T. A. (2015). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. Guilford publications.

  • Bus, A., van IJzendoorn, M., & Pellegrini, A. (1995). Joint book reading makes for success in learning to read: a meta-analysis on intergenerational transmission of literacy. Review of Educational Research, 65(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543065001001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cooke, J. E., Kochendorfer, L. B., Stuart-Parrigon, K. L., Koehn, A. J., & Kerns, K. A. (2019). Parent–child attachment and children’s experience and regulation of emotion: A meta-analytic review. Emotion, 19(6), 1103 https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000504.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cordero, M., Molina, H. & Mercer, R. (Eds.) (2017). De las Moléculas al Capital Humano. Para entender las ciencias del desarrollo humano. Universidad de Santiago: Santiago, Chile.

  • Cyr, C. H., Euser, E., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M., & van IJzendoorn, M. (2010). Attachment security and disorganization in maltreating and high-risk families: A series of meta-analyses. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 87–108. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579409990289.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DeVellis, R. F. (2016). Scale development: Theory and applications (Vol. 26). Sage publications.

  • Diaz, K., & Villalobos, M. (2018). Propiedades psicometricas de la escala de parentalidad positiva e2p adaptada para adolescentes del distrito de san juan de lurigancho. Tesis para obtener el Título Profesional de Licenciada en Psicología, Escuela Profesional de Psicología, Universidad César Vallejo.

  • Dowdall, N., Melendez‐Torres, G. J., Murray, L., Gardner, F., Hartford, L., & Cooper, P. J. (2020). Shared picture book reading interventions for child language development: A systematic review and meta‐analysis. Child Development, 91(2), e383–e399. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13225.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, N., Zhou, Q., Spinrad, T. L., Valiente, C., Fabes, R. A., & Liew, J. (2005). Relations among positive parenting, children’s effortful control, and externalizing problems: A three-wave longitudinal study. Child Development, 76, 1055–1071. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00897.x.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Eltanamly, H., Leijten, P., Jak, S., & Overbeek, G. (2019). Parenting in times of war: A meta-analysis and qualitative synthesis of war exposure, parenting, and child adjustment. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 1524838019833001. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838019833001

  • Farkas-Klein, C. H. (2008). Escala de evaluación parental (EEP): desarrollo, propiedades psicométricas y aplicaciones. Universitas Psychologica, 7(2), 468–468.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feldman, R. (2012). Parent-infant synchrony: A biobehavioral model of mutual influences in the formation of affiliative bonds. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 77(2), 42–51. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5834.2011.00660.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flora, D., Flake, J., & Roberts, W. (2017). The purpose and practice of exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis in psychological research: decisions for scale development and validation. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue Canadienne Des Sciences Du Comportement, 49(2), 78–88. https://doi.org/10.1037/cbs0000069.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fonagy, P. (2006). The mentalization-focused approach to social development. J. Allen & P. Fonagy (Eds.), The handbook of mentalization-based treatment (pp. 53–99). Hoboken, N.J., US: John Wiley & Sons Inc. https://doi.org/10.1521/pedi.2006.20.6.544.

  • Fonagy, P., & Target, M. (1997). Attachment and reflective function: Their role in self-organization. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 679–700. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579497001399.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gilkerson, J., Richards, J., Warren, S., Oller, K., Russo, R., & Vohr, B. (2018). Language experience in the second year of life and language outcomes in late childhood. Pediatrics, 142(4), e20174276 https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2017-4276.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gómez, E., & Contreras, L. (2019). Manual Escala de Parentalidad Positiva E2P v2 (segunda versión). Fundación América por la Infancia: Santiago.

  • Gómez, E., & Muñoz, M. (2013). Escala de Parentalidad Positiva E2P. MANUAL. Fundación Ideas para la Infancia: Santiago.

  • Gómez, E. (2016). Comunidad Sensible a las Trayectorias de la Adopción: Hacia un Sistema Nacional de Adopción. En El Tiempo de los Niños: tensiones y desafíos ante una nueva ley de adopción en Chile (pp. 27–55). Santiago de Chile: Fundación San José para la Adopción.

  • Gómez, E. (2021). Capítulo 2. El modelo ODISEA: diez años de aprendizajes en la intervención parental y familiar. M. Salazar (Coord). En Parentalidad, Cuidados y Bienestar Infantil. El desafío de la intervención en contextos adversos (37–56). RIL Editores.

  • Gómez, E. (2022). Competencias Parentales. Un enfoque ecológico-relacional. Ed. Psimática.

  • Goodman, R. (2001). Psychometric properties of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(11), 1337–1345. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200111000-00015.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gottman, J., Katz, L., & Hooven, C. (1997). Meta-emotion: How families communicate emotionally. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

  • Graham, J. W., Cumsille, P. E., & Shevock, A. E. (2013). Methods for handling missing data. In J. A. Schinka, W. F. Velicer, & I. B. Weiner (Eds.), Handbook of psychology: Research methods in psychology (pp. 109–141). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

  • Harrington, D. (2009). Confirmatory factor analysis. Oxford university press.

  • Hoff, E. (2006). How social contexts support and shape language development. Developmental Review, 26, 55–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2005.11.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karreman, A., van Tuijl, C., van Aken, M., & Dekovic, M. (2006). Parenting and self-regulation in preschoolers: A meta-analysis. Infant and Child Development, 15, 561–579. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.478.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kline, R. B. (2015). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. Guilford publications.

  • Koehn, A. J., & Kerns, K. A. (2018). Parent–child attachment: Meta-analysis of associations with parenting behaviors in middle childhood and adolescence. Attachment & Human Development, 20(4), 378–405. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2017.1408131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LeBuffe, P. A., & Naglieri, J. A. (1999). The devereux early childhood assessment. Lewisville, NC: Kaplan Press Publishing.

  • Liu, D., Chen, D., & Brown, B. B. (2020). Do parenting practices and child disclosure predict parental knowledge? A meta-analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 49(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-01154-4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Loveman, E., Al‐Khudairy, L., Johnson, R. E., Robertson, W., Colquitt, J. L., Mead, E. L., & Rees, K. (2015). Parent‐only interventions for childhood overweight or obesity in children aged 5 to 11 years. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 12. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD012008.

  • Madigan, S., Prime, H., Graham, S. A., Rodrigues, M., Anderson, N., Khoury, J., & Jenkins, J. M. (2019). Parenting behavior and child language: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics, 144(4). https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2018-3556.

  • McLeod, B., Wood, J., & Weisz, J. (2007). Examining the association between parenting and childhood anxiety: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 27, 155–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2006.09.002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meltzoff, A. N., & Kuhl, P. K. (2016). Exploring the infant social brain: What’s going on in there. Zero to Three, 36(3), 2–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Molina, R. (2015). Adaptación de la Escala de Parentalidad Positiva “E2P” en población argentina. Trabajo de Integración Final. Facultad de Psicología y Psicopedagogía, Universidad Católica Argentina: Buenos Aires.

  • National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. (2012). The science of neglect: The persistent absence of responsive care disrupts the developing brain. Working Paper 12.

  • Nicholson, J., Howard, K., & Borkowski, J. (2008). Mental models for parenting: Correlates of metaparenting among fathers of young children. Fathering, 6(1), 39–61. https://doi.org/10.3149/fth.0601.39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pinquart, M. (2014). Associations of general parenting and parent–child relationship with pediatric obesity: a meta-analysis. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 39(4), 381–393. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jst144.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pinquart, M. (2017a). Associations of parenting dimensions and styles with externalizing problems of children and adolescents: An updated meta-analysis. Developmental Psychology, 53(5), 873 https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000295.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pinquart, M. (2017b). Associations of parenting dimensions and styles with internalizing symptoms in children and adolescents: A meta-analysis. Marriage & Family Review, 53(7), 613–640. https://doi.org/10.1080/01494929.2016.1247761.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2006). The content validity index: are you sure you know what’s being reported? Critique and recommendations. Research in Nursing & Health, 29(5), 489–497. https://doi.org/10.1002/nur.20147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Powell, G., Mackrain, M., LeBuffe, P., & Lewisville, N. C. (2007). Devereux early childhood assessment for infants and toddlers technical manual. Lewisville, NC: Kaplan Early Learning Corporation.

  • Raynor, P., & Pope, C. (2016). The role of self-care for parents in recovery from substance use disorders: An integrative review of parental self-care. Journal of Addictions Nursing, 27(3), 180–189. https://doi.org/10.1097/JAN.0000000000000133.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rhemtulla, M., Brosseau-Liard, P., Savalei, V., Appelbaum, Mark, I., & Maxwell, S. E. (2012). When can categorical variables be treated as continuous? A comparison of robust continuous and categorical SEM estimation methods under suboptimal conditions. Psychological Methods, 17(3), 354–373. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029315.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rodrigo, M. J., Máiquez, M. L., Martín, J. C., Byrne, S., & Rodríguez, B. (coord.) (2015). Manual Práctico de Parentalidad Positiva. Ed. Síntesis: Madrid.

  • Rodrigo, M. J., Martín, J. C., Cabrera, E., & Máiquez, M. L. (2009). Las competencias parentales en contextos de riesgo psicosocial. Intervención Psicosocial, 18(2), 113–120. https://doi.org/10.5093/in2009v18n2a3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rowe, M. L., Denmark, N., Harden, B. J., & Stapleton, L. M. (2016). The role of parent education and parenting knowledge in children’s language and literacy skills among white, black, and latino families. Infant and Child Development, 25(2), 198–220. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.1924.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shin, K. M., Cho, S. M., Shin, Y. M., & Park, K. S. (2016). Effects of early childhood peer relationships on adolescent mental health: A 6-to 8-year follow-up study in South Korea. Psychiatry Investigation, 13(4), 383 https://doi.org/10.4306/pi.2016.13.4.383.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Spagnola, M., & Fiese, B. (2007). Family routines and rituals. A context for development in the lives of young children. Infants & Young Children, 20(4), 284–299. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.IYC.0000290352.32170.5a.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spera, C. (2005). A review of the relationship among parenting practices, parenting styles, and adolescent school achievement. Educational Psychology Review, 17(2), 125–146. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-005-3950-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sroufe, A. (2005). Attachment and development: A prospective, longitudinal study from birth to adulthood. Attachment and Human Development, 7(4), 349–367. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616730500365928.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg, L., Lamborn, S. D., & Dornbusch, S. M. (1992). Impact of parenting practices on adolescent achievement: Authoritative parenting, school involvement, and encouragement to succeed. Child Development, 63(5), 1266–1281. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1992.tb01694.x. (81). Darling.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tamis-LeMonda, C., Bornstein, M., & Baumwell, L. (2001). Maternal responsiveness and children’s achievement of language milestones. Child Development, 72, 748–767. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00313.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tavakol, M., & Dennick, R. (2011). Making sense of Cronbach’s alpha. International Journal of Medical Education, 2, 53–55. https://doi.org/10.5116/ijme.4dfb.8dfd.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, R. (2014). Socialization of emotion and emotion regulation in the family. En J., Gross, J. (Ed.). Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 173–186). The Guilford Press: New York.

  • Tucumbi, J., & Lorena, J. (2019). Estructura factorial y confiabilidad de la Escala de Parentalidad Positiva (e2p) aplicado a una muestra de padres de familia ecuatorianos con hijos de 12 a 36 meses de edad de los Centros de Desarrollo Infantil del Gobierno Autónomo Descentralizado (GAD) de Calderón (Bachelor’s thesis, Quito: UCE).

  • Vargas, J., Richaud, M., & Lemos, V. (2020). Validación de la escala de parentalidad positiva E2P a una muestra argentina. Revista Argentina de Ciencias del Comportamiento (RACC), 12(1), 46–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vaske, J. J., Beaman, J., & Sponarski, C. C. (2017). Rethinking internal consistency in Cronbach’s alpha. Leisure Sciences, 39(2), 163–173. https://doi.org/10.1080/01490400.2015.1127189.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zajicek-Farber, M., Mayer, L., & Daughtery, L. (2012). Connections among parental mental health, stress, child routines, and early emotional behavioral regulation of preschool children in low-income families. Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research, 3(1), 31–50. https://doi.org/10.5243/jsswr.2012.3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zeegers, M. A., Colonnesi, C., Stams, G. J. J., & Meins, E. (2017). Mind matters: A meta-analysis on parental mentalization and sensitivity as predictors of infant–parent attachment. Psychological Bulletin, 143(12), 1245 https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000114.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors sincerely thank the participating families, professionals, and institutions for their cooperation with this project. They also thank Magdalena Muñoz, co-author of the first version of the scale, for her support to the continuation of the development of the new version of the instrument.

Funding

This project was financed by Fundación América por la Infancia.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Fundación América por la Infancia, Santiago de Chile, Chile

    Esteban Gómez Muzzio & Leyla Contreras Yévenes

  2. Universidad de los Andes, Santiago de Chile, Chile

    José Pezoa Sandoval

Authors
  1. Esteban Gómez Muzzio
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Leyla Contreras Yévenes
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. José Pezoa Sandoval
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation and data collection were performed by Leyla Contreras and analysis were performed by José Pezoa. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Esteban Gómez and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Esteban Gómez Muzzio.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Muzzio, E.G., Yévenes, L.C. & Sandoval, J.P. Positive Parenting Scale (E2P): Evidence of Validity and Reliability in a Chilean Sample. J Child Fam Stud 31, 3372–3384 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-022-02410-1

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-022-02410-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation