Abstract
Film plays an important role in the American political system, and forms an important branch of the mass media. I analyze the political contributions of a sample of 996 top film actors, directors, producers, and writers, correlating them with demographic, family, and career success variables. I find that contributions flow overwhelmingly to left-of-center parties and organizations. I theorize about the causes of this bias, and argue empirically that, while demographic variables are not completely irrelevant, Hollywood liberalism is primarily a function of high, publicly visible incomes, and family connections. Neither religion nor birthplace effects seem to affect political activity in the film business.
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Notes
As early as the 1932 presidential campaign, contributions from Hollywood were substantial (Brownstein 1992). The “Hollywood for Roosevelt Committee” was among the most important contributors in the 1940 presidential campaign, and of the 1944 campaign, Overacker (1945) writes, “Without Hollywood’s substantial support, the (Democratic) Party would have been in a sad financial plight.”
For instance, at a 1990 Hollywood dinner for former New Jersey senator Bill Bradley, Disney’s then-chairman Michael Eisner explained that he organized the event in order to “send a signal to the press and the nation that will create so much pressure that Bill will have to run (for President) in 1992” (quoted in Brownstein 1992). Due to political circumstance, Bradley chose not to run in 1992, but did eventually run in 2000, and received a substantial amount of financial support from Hollywood, as shown in the analysis of that election below.
http://www.hsx.com/. The site is owned and operated as a subsidiary of Cantor Fitzgerald, L.P.
E.g., Britney Spears, DMX, etc.
In the few cases in which there was uncertainty about whether a contribution belonged to a particular individual, the contribution was not assigned.
In a few cases, data were missing on these variables. For these individuals, I typically assigned the most common value. Thus, for instance, if I did not know whether the individual was college-educated, I assumed he was not.
Career film histories were derived from the All Movie Guides at http://www.allmovie.com.
In some cases, a film was produced for television, the “straight-to-video” market, or as a student film or documentary, and so no box office data were available.
During the early portion of the sample period, total contributions to an individual candidate were limited to $1,000 per donor per election, but “soft money” contributions to national parties were essentially unlimited. After the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002, which was implemented beginning in January, 2003, contribution limits were raised to $2,000, but soft money contributions were substantially restricted.
For example, Rob Reiner directed The American President (1995), Oliver Stone directed Platoon (1986), Wall Street (1987), and JFK (1992), and Nora Ephron authored the screenplay for Silkwood (1983).
Nick Clooney, an unsuccessful candidate for the House of Representatives from Kentucky, is the father of George Clooney, a top movie actor.
Because box office returns are being treated as a proxy for income, I used the general urban CPI to deflate nominal box office dollars, instead of a film or entertainment-specific price index. Because the individuals in the sample are concentrated in certain areas of the country (southern California and New York, e.g.), and because their typical consumption bundle differs somewhat from the median American’s (more security services and formal wear, e.g.), the use of the general CPI may be inappropriate, however.
A variant on this theory models contributions as one side of a reciprocal gift exchange between the film industry and politicians. Through various institutions, including unions, coveted industry-wide awards (Frey 2005), and personal and familial networks, actors and directors may develop favorable sentiments for each other, which they seek to express through gift-giving. The usual inadequacy of monetary gifts to fully express emotional sentiments (Prendergast and Stole 2001; Cameron 1989) is exacerbated among film stars, both because many of them are very wealthy, and because their trade emphasizes the importance of personality in ways most other industries do not (Offer 1997). Thus, actors and directors may contribute to politicians in order to impel government policy for which the apparent individual instrumental benefit may be quite small, but which benefit the class of actors or directors as a whole to a substantial degree (see Akerlof 1982 for a similar example of behavior among workers in a firm).
For modeling purposes, I ignore contributions to independent candidates and PACs.
Brownstein (1992) quotes Robert Redford as saying, “We get paid so much money just for being personalities. Other people are out there digging trenches and working in dangerous jobs…that guilt produces some desire for credibility, so they go into campaigns.” Professional athletes are also publicly wealthy, but are usually not prominent in politics. Unlike film stars, however, athletes’ fan bases are usually local to the metro area where their team plays. Therefore, participation in local public works projects provides more efficient publicity than involvement in national political campaigns. Moreover, frequent movie consumers tend to be politically left-of-center and less religious in comparison with those who watch films irregularly (Franklin 2006), while sports audiences are typically more conservative. It is difficult to know to what degree such audience sorting is a cause of Hollywood’s liberalism or an effect of it, however.
If utility were extremely concave in warm glow, an increase in income would raise the value of inframarginal contributions in producing warm glow, and due to the concavity of the utility function, the star might then wish to reduce his contributions on the margin.
Differentiating equation 4A and solving for the comparative static (again assuming for simplicity that U 12 = 0), we have
\( \frac{{{\text{d}}C_{D} }}{{{\text{d}}\theta }} = \frac{{p^{2} U_{2} \Uppsi_{1} - p^{2} (\theta - \tfrac{1}{2})C_{D} \left[ {U_{2} \Uppsi_{11} + U_{22} \Uppsi_{1}^{2} } \right]}}{{U_{11} + p^{2} (\theta - \tfrac{1}{2})^{2} \left[ {U_{2} \Uppsi_{11} + U_{22} \Uppsi_{1}^{2} } \right]}}, \) which is negative so long as θ is sufficiently low.
See Mandorff (2006) for some fascinating accounts.
Unfortunately, in most cases, it was impossible to determine current religious intensity, or to distinguish between different denominations among those with Christian backgrounds.
When there was no evidence to suggest a Jewish background, the Jewish variable was coded as zero; thus, this variable should be interpreted to indicate individuals who have commonly identified themselves as Jewish or from a Jewish family background.
Of the 30% of actors who are foreign born, nearly 73% are from English-speaking countries: the British Isles, including Ireland (50%), Canada (15%), Australia and New Zealand (7.9%). Those from English-speaking countries make up only 63% of the foreign-born group among non-actors.
Thus, Medved (2003) purports that stars who do not “toe the line” on leftist politics face discrimination in hiring.
DeVany and Walls (2004) show that the distribution of box office returns is Pareto, with an infinite variance.
No less than Charlton Heston argues for this view (quoted in Sherman 1990):
Most actors are faintly surprised by success, or even employment. How do they speak out? They speak out as liberals. They feel subconsciously guilty that somehow it worked for them and it didn’t work as well for those people. How come the guy who won the sonnet reading contest at Northwestern is selling aluminum siding, and I didn’t win, and I’m acting?
In Rothman and Lichter’s (1984) survey, 97.1% of the Hollywood elite were “pro-choice”, and substantially higher fractions agreed with liberal statements on homosexuality and extramarital sex than those in other elite professions.
In the very earliest days of film, there was substantial Republican support among actors. According to Brownstein (1992), Al Jolson wrote campaign songs for both Warren Harding and Calvin Coolidge. However, by the 1930s, political contributions from Hollywood to Republicans were virtually nonexistent (see the surveys by Overacker 1937, 1941, and 1945), and with the exception of a brief period during the 1950s, have remained that way up to the present.
HUAC investigations of Hollywood had begun in 1938, but it was not until 1947 that systematic subpoenaing activity began.
Becker and Murphy (2000) model such mechanisms.
Specifically, given the vector of estimated Probit coefficients, b, the coefficients presented in the table are calculated as \( \varphi (\overline{x} b)b, \) where φ is the Gaussian probability distribution function, and \( \overline{x} \) is a vector of the means of all continuous covariates and zero for all categorical covariates.
This is the only variable for which the exclusion of outliers changes the results qualitatively. Including Michael Douglas (who is Jewish) makes the effect of being Jewish on contribution amount positive and significant.
Separating out New York from California, or including more detailed birthplace variables such as census region dummies similarly does not evince any statistically significant result.
Further analyses showed that neither a separation of those born in English-speaking countries from others, nor a separation among the non-North American English-speaking countries evinced any statistically significant differences in either the propensity to contribute or the amount contributed by country of origin.
Under Rosen’s (1982) theory of “superstars,” the distribution of income among stars is highly concentrated. This evidence suggests that the concentration of contributions is much less concentrated, as might be expected given the strict limits on individual contributions imposed by law during most of the sample period. Similarly, in the specifications with average box office returns as a regressor, if a quadratic term is added to the specification, the coefficient on that term is negative (though not statistically significant).
As in the previous analysis, I exclude the two biggest contributors from Table 2 in the contribution levels regressions.
Hispanics are excluded here because there are not enough of them (2) to derive standard errors for the coefficient. They are grouped with whites for this analysis.
Warner Brothers’ films opposing German fascism in the 1930s (Ross 2004), for instance, or the heroism of leftist Presidential candidates in major political films of the 1990s, including The Distinguished Gentleman, The American President, and Dave (Scott 2000). On the other hand, the instance of Michael Eisner’s refusal to distribute Fahrenheit 9/11, a film highly critical of President George W. Bush, suggests that conservative politics may play a role as well.
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Acknowledgements
I am grateful for comments and suggestions from David Prindle, Bob Tollison, Robert Tamura, and seminar participants at Clemson University. J. Kerry Waller provided excellent research assistance in the production of the data. All errors herein are the author’s.
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Appendix
Appendix
Names of individuals in sample
F. Murray Abraham |
Joey Lauren Adams |
Mark Addy |
Ben Affleck |
Casey Affleck |
Liam Aiken |
Jessica Alba |
Jason Alexander |
Joan Allen |
Tim Allen |
Woody Allen |
Pedro Almodovar |
Robert Altman |
Anthony Anderson |
Gillian Anderson |
Paul Anderson |
Wes Anderson |
Paul Thomas Anderson |
Jennifer Aniston |
Penelope Ann Miller |
Shiri Appleby |
Christina Applegate |
Alan Arkin |
Darren Aronofsky |
David Arquette |
Patricia Arquette |
Rosanna Arquette |
Courteney Cox Arquette |
Sean Astin |
Rowan Atkinson |
Charlotte Ayanna |
Dan Aykroyd |
Hank Azaria |
Kevin Bacon |
Simon Baker |
Alec Baldwin |
William Baldwin |
Christian Bale |
Fairuza Balk |
Eric Bana |
Antonio Banderas |
Javier Bardem |
Ellen Barkin |
Jacinda Barrett |
Drew Barrymore |
Kim Basinger |
Angela Bassett |
Kathy Bates |
Michael Bay |
Adam Beach |
Sean Bean |
Warren Beatty |
Kate Beckinsale |
Jason Behr |
Bill Bellamy |
Maria Bello |
Monica Bellucci |
Jim Belushi |
Roberto Benigni |
Annette Bening |
Wes Bentley |
Tom Berenger |
Candice Bergen |
Gael Garcia Bernal |
Halle Berry |
Luc Besson |
Paul Bettany |
Leslie Bibb |
Michael Biehn |
Jessica Biel |
Kathryn Bigelow |
Jason Biggs |
Juliette Binoche |
Thora Birch |
Lucas Black |
Jack Black |
Selma Blair |
Rachel Blanchard |
Cate Blanchett |
Brenda Blethyn |
Orlando Bloom |
Marc Blucas |
Billy Bob Thornton |
David Boreanaz |
Kate Bosworth |
Raoul Bova |
Danny Boyle |
Lara Flynn Boyle |
Jesse Bradford |
Zach Braff |
Kenneth Branagh |
Marlon Brando |
Benjamin Bratt |
Andre Braugher |
Martin Brest |
Jordana Brewster |
Jeff Bridges |
Jim Broadbent |
Matthew Broderick |
Adam Brody |
Adrien Brody |
Josh Brolin |
Albert Brooks |
Pierce Brosnan |
Joy Bryant |
Sandra Bullock |
Edward Burns |
Saffron Burrows |
Ellen Burstyn |
Tim Burton |
Steve Buscemi |
Jake Busey |
Gerard Butler |
Gabriel Byrne |
Rose Byrne |
James Caan |
Scott Caan |
Nicolas Cage |
Dean Cain |
Michael Caine |
James Cameron |
Bruce Campbell |
Martin Campbell |
Neve Campbell |
Jane Campion |
Nick Cannon |
Linda Cardellini |
Robert Carlyle |
John Carpenter |
Jim Carrey |
Helena Bonham Carter |
Nick Cassavetes |
Vincent Cassel |
Jim Caviezel |
Cedric the Entertainer |
Lacey Chabert |
Jackie Chan |
Stockard Channing |
Ben Chaplin |
David Chappelle |
Chevy Chase |
Don Cheadle |
Joan Chen |
Morris Chestnut |
Maggie Cheung |
China Chow |
Erika Christensen |
Hayden Christensen |
Patricia Clarkson |
John Cleese |
George Clooney |
Glenn Close |
Ethan Coen |
Joel Coen |
Rob Cohen |
Toni Collette |
Clifton Collins Jr. |
Robbie Coltrane |
Chris Columbus |
Sean Combs |
Jennifer Connelly |
Sean Connery |
Harry Connick Jr. |
Billy Connolly |
Steve Coogan |
Rachael Leigh Cook |
Jennifer Coolidge |
Chris Cooper |
Sofia Coppola |
Francis Ford Coppola |
John Corbett |
Kevin Costner |
Brian Cox |
Daniel Craig |
Wes Craven |
James Cromwell |
David Cronenberg |
Cameron Crowe |
Russell Crowe |
Billy Crudup |
Tom Cruise |
Penelope Cruz |
Billy Crystal |
Marton Csokas |
Alfonso Cuaron |
Ice Cube |
Kieran Culkin |
Macaulay Culkin |
Alan Cumming |
Tim Curry |
Jamie Lee Curtis |
Joan Cusack |
John Cusack |
Elisha Cuthbert |
Willem Dafoe |
Stephen Daldry |
Matt Damon |
Hugh Dancy |
Claire Danes |
Jeff Daniels |
Frank Darabont |
Embeth Davidtz |
Jeremy Davies |
Geena Davis |
Hope Davis |
Matthew Davis |
Bruce Davison |
Rosario Dawson |
Daniel Day-Lewis |
Mos Def |
Ellen Degeneres |
Benicio Del Toro |
Guillermo Del Toro |
Julie Delpy |
Jonathan Demme |
Patrick Dempsey |
Judi Dench |
Catherine Deneuve |
Robert DeNiro |
Gerard Depardieu |
Johnny Depp |
Laura Dern |
Zooey Deschanel |
Amanda Detmer |
Danny DeVito |
Cameron Diaz |
Leonardo DiCaprio |
Andy Dick |
Vin Diesel |
Taye Diggs |
Matt Dillon |
Snoop Dogg |
Richard Donner |
Vincent D’Onofrio |
Stephen Dorff |
Illeana Douglas |
Michael Douglas |
Brad Dourif |
Robert Downey Jr. |
Richard Dreyfuss |
Minnie Driver |
David Duchovny |
Josh Duhamel |
Faye Dunaway |
Michael Clarke Duncan |
Nora Dunn |
Kirsten Dunst |
Charles Durning |
Eliza Dushku |
Charles S. Dutton |
Clea DuVall |
Robert Duvall |
Michael Ealy |
Clint Eastwood |
Christopher Eccleston |
Aaron Eckhart |
Stacy Edwards |
Atom Egoyan |
Chiwetel Ejiofor |
Ron Eldard |
Carmen Electra |
Jenna Elfman |
Kimberly Elise |
Shannon Elizabeth |
Hector Elizondo |
Sandra Bullock |
Sam Elliot |
Chris Elliott |
Cary Elwes |
Ethan Embry |
Noah Emmerich |
Roland Emmerich |
Nora Ephron |
Mike Epps |
Omar Epps |
Jennifer Esposito |
Chris Evans |
Lee Evans |
Rupert Everett |
Peter Facinelli |
Donald Faison |
Edie Falco |
Jimmy Fallon |
Dennis Farina |
Anna Faris |
Vera Farmiga |
Colin Farrell |
Bobby Farrelly |
Peter Farrelly |
Jon Favreau |
Angela Featherstone |
Brendan Fehr |
Oded Fehr |
Colm Feore |
Craig Ferguson |
Will Ferrell |
Mark Feuerstein |
William Fichtner |
Sally Field |
Todd Field |
Joseph Fiennes |
Ralph Fiennes |
Mike Figgis |
David Fincher |
Albert Finney |
Colin Firth |
Laurence Fishburne |
Jason Flemyng |
Dave Foley |
Scott Foley |
Bridget Fonda |
Peter Fonda |
Harrison Ford |
Trent Ford |
Claire Forlani |
Milos Forman |
Robert Forster |
Ben Foster |
Jodie Foster |
Chris Columbus |
Sara Foster |
Vivica A. Fox |
Jamie Foxx |
James Frain |
Jonathan Frakes |
James Franco |
Carl Franklin |
Brendan Fraser |
Stephen Frears |
Morgan Freeman |
William Friedkin |
Patrick Fugit |
Antoine Fuqua |
Edward Furlong |
Peter Gallagher |
Michael Gambon |
James Gandolfini |
Romola Garai |
Adam Garcia |
Andy Garcia |
James Garner |
Jennifer Garner |
Janeane Garofalo |
Rebecca Gayheart |
Sarah Michelle Gellar |
Richard Gere |
Greg Germann |
Gina Gershon |
Paul Giamatti |
Mel Gibson |
Thomas Gibson |
Tyrese Gibson |
Terry Gilliam |
Brendan Gleeson |
Scott Glenn |
Crispin Glover |
Danny Glover |
Adam Goldberg |
Bill Goldberg |
Whoopi Goldberg |
Jeff Goldblum |
Tony Goldwyn |
Cuba Gooding Jr. |
John Goodman |
Ginnifer Goodwin |
Ryan Gosling |
Raja Gosnell |
Topher Grace |
Heather Graham |
Kelsey Grammer |
Hugh Grant |
Seth Green |
Tom Green |
Benicio Del Toro |
Bruce Greenwood |
Judy Greer |
Pam Grier |
Eddie Griffin |
Melanie Griffith |
Rachel Griffiths |
Ioan Gruffudd |
Christopher Guest |
Carla Gugino |
Luis Guzman |
Jake Gyllenhaal |
Maggie Gyllenhaal |
Lukas Haas |
Taylor Hackford |
Gene Hackman |
Philip Baker Hall |
Regina Hall |
Anthony Michael Hall |
Lasse Hallstrom |
Colin Hanks |
Tom Hanks |
Daryl Hannah |
John Hannah |
Alyson Hannigan |
Curtis Hanson |
Marcia Gay Harden |
Tom Hardy |
Renny Harlin |
Woody Harrelson |
Laura Elena Harring |
Ed Harris |
Ian Hart |
Melissa Joan Hart |
Josh Hartnett |
Steve Harvey |
Colleen Haskell |
Teri Hatcher |
Anne Hathaway |
Shawn Hatosy |
Cole Hauser |
Ethan Hawke |
Goldie Hawn |
Salma Hayek |
Lena Headey |
Anne Heche |
Amy Heckerling |
Dan Hedaya |
Katherine Heigl |
Martin Henderson |
Natasha Henstridge |
Jay Hernandez |
Barbara Hershey |
Jennifer Love Hewitt |
Ciaran Hinds |
Dustin Hoffman |
Philip Seymour Hoffman |
Lauren Holly |
Ian Holm |
Katie Holmes |
Anthony Hopkins |
Dennis Hopper |
Bob Hoskins |
Djimon Hounsou |
Ron Howard |
Kelly Hu |
Kate Hudson |
Albert Hughes |
Allen Hughes |
Charlie Hunnam |
Bonnie Hunt |
Helen Hunt |
Holly Hunter |
Elizabeth Hurley |
William Hurt |
Anjelica Huston |
Doug Hutchison |
Timothy Hutton |
Eric Idle |
Rhys Ifans |
Jeremy Irons |
Amy Irving |
Jason Isaacs |
Eddie Izzard |
Hugh Jackman |
Jonathan Jackson |
Joshua Jackson |
Peter Jackson |
Samuel L. Jackson |
Thomas Jane |
Allison Janney |
Famke Janssen |
Marianne Jean-Baptiste |
Norman Jewison |
Joe Johnston |
Angelina Jolie |
Cherry Jones |
January Jones |
Orlando Jones |
Tamala Jones |
Vinnie Jones |
Tommy Lee Jones |
Spike Jonze |
Neil Jordan |
Milla Jovovich |
Ashley Judd |
Mike Judge |
Shekhar Kapur |
Tcheky Karyo |
Nicky Katt |
Chris Kattan |
Philip Kaufman |
Diane Keaton |
Michael Keaton |
Andrew Keegan |
Catherine Keener |
Harvey Keitel |
Will Kemp |
Jamie Kennedy |
Nicole Kidman |
Val Kilmer |
Jamie King |
Regina King |
Ben Kingsley |
Greg Kinnear |
Nastassja Kinski |
Mia Kirshner |
Chris Klein |
Kevin Kline |
Beyonce Knowles |
Johnny Knoxville |
Elias Koteas |
Thomas Kretschmann |
Kris Kristofferson |
Diane Kruger |
David Krumholtz |
Lisa Kudrow |
Ashton Kutcher |
Neil LaBute |
Martin Landau |
Diane Lane |
Nathan Lane |
Jessica Lange |
Anthony LaPaglia |
Ali Larter |
Sanaa Lathan |
Queen Latifah |
Jude Law |
Martin Lawrence |
Denis Leary |
Matt LeBlanc |
Mimi Leder |
Heath Ledger |
Christopher Lee |
Jason Lee |
Spike Lee |
John Leguizamo |
Jennifer Jason Leigh |
Joshua Leonard |
Tea Leoni |
Jared Leto |
Barry Levinson |
Eugene Levy |
Juliette Lewis |
Jet Li |
Matthew Lillard |
Doug Liman |
Delroy Lindo |
Richard Linklater |
Laura Linney |
Ray Liotta |
John Lithgow |
Lucy Liu |
Ron Livingston |
LL Cool J |
Donal Logue |
Alison Lohman |
Kristanna Loken |
Nia Long |
Jennifer Lopez |
Courtney Love |
Jon Lovitz |
Rob Lowe |
George Lucas |
Josh Lucas |
Derek Luke |
Diego Luna |
David Lynch |
Melanie Lynskey |
Natasha Lyonne |
Eric Mabius |
Bernie Mac |
Norm Macdonald |
Andie MacDowell |
William H. Macy |
John Madden |
Madonna |
Michael Madsen |
Tobey Maguire |
John Malkovich |
David Mamet |
James Mangold |
Camryn Manheim |
Gabriel Mann |
Michael Mann |
Taryn Manning |
Julianna Margulies |
Cheech Marin |
James Marsden |
Garry Marshall |
Penny Marshall |
Steve Martin |
Olivier Martinez |
Heather Matarazzo |
Rachel McAdams |
Matthew McConaughey |
Catherine McCormack |
Mary McCormack |
Dylan McDermott |
Ian McDiarmid |
Frances McDormand |
Natascha McElhone |
Elizabeth McGovern |
Rose McGowan |
Ewan McGregor |
Ian McKellen |
Janet McTeer |
John McTiernan |
Eva Mendes |
Sam Mendes |
Debra Messing |
Jason Mewes |
Breckin Meyer |
Bette Midler |
Christina Milian |
Jonny Lee Miller |
Anthony Minghella |
Rob Minkoff |
Helen Mirren |
Radha Mitchell |
Jay Mohr |
Gretchen Mol |
Alfred Molina |
Demi Moore |
Julianne Moore |
Cathy Moriarty-Gentile |
Temuera Morrison |
David Morse |
Viggo Mortensen |
Emily Mortimer |
Joe Morton |
Samantha Morton |
Carrie-Anne Moss |
Jonathan Mostow |
Bridget Moynahan |
Dermot Mulroney |
Lochlyn Munro |
Brittany Murphy |
Cillian Murphy |
Eddie Murphy |
Chad Michael Murray |
Bill Murray |
Mike Myers |
Sophia Myles |
Parminder Nagra |
Liam Neeson |
Sam Neill |
Tim Blake Nelson |
Bebe Neuwirth |
Mike Newell |
Paul Newman |
Thandie Newton |
Andrew Niccol |
Mike Nichols |
Jack Nicholson |
Connie Nielsen |
Christopher Nolan |
Nick Nolte |
Stephen Norrington |
Jeremy Northam |
Edward Norton |
Jack Noseworthy |
Chris Noth |
Phillip Noyce |
Jerry O’Connell |
Frances O’Connor |
Chris O’Donnell |
Catherine O’Hara |
Gary Oldman |
Lena Olin |
Timothy Olyphant |
Peter O’Toole |
Miranda Otto |
Clive Owen |
Frank Oz |
Al Pacino |
Chazz Palminteri |
Gwyneth Paltrow |
Joe Pantoliano |
Anna Paquin |
Kip Pardue |
Nick Park |
Sarah Jessica Parker |
Alan Parker |
Molly Parker |
Jason Patric |
Robert Patrick |
Will Patton |
Bill Paxton |
David Paymer |
Alexander Payne |
Guy Pearce |
Amanda Peet |
Kimberly Peirce |
Sean Penn |
Robin Wright Penn |
Barry Pepper |
Piper Perabo |
Vincent Perez |
Ron Perlman |
Matthew Perry |
Wolfgang Petersen |
Michelle Pfeiffer |
Mekhi Phifer |
Ryan Phillippe |
Lou Diamond Phillips |
Bijou Phillips |
Todd Phillips |
Joaquin Phoenix |
David Hyde Pierce |
Brad Pitt |
Michael Pitt |
Jeremy Piven |
Oliver Platt |
Joan Plowright |
Christopher Plummer |
Roman Polanski |
Kevin Pollak |
Sarah Polley |
Teri Polo |
Carly Pope |
Natalie Portman |
Parker Posey |
Pete Postlethwaite |
Franka Potente |
Monica Potter |
Jaime Pressly |
Kelly Preston |
Freddie Prinze Jr. |
Alex Proyas |
Jonathan Pryce |
Bill Pullman |
James Purefoy |
Dennis Quaid |
Randy Quaid |
DJ Qualls |
Aidan Quinn |
Sam Raimi |
Harold Ramis |
Michael Rapaport |
Brett Ratner |
Usher Raymond |
Stephen Rea |
Robert Redford |
Vanessa Redgrave |
Norman Reedus |
Keanu Reeves |
Tara Reid |
John C. Reilly |
Rob Reiner |
Paul Reiser |
Ivan Reitman |
Brad Renfro |
Jean Reno |
Paul Reubens |
Burt Reynolds |
Ryan Reynolds |
Ving Rhames |
Jonathan Rhys-Meyers |
Giovanni Ribisi |
Christina Ricci |
Denise Richards |
Miranda Richardson |
Natasha Richardson |
Alan Rickman |
Guy Ritchie |
Jay Roach |
Brian Robbins |
Tim Robbins |
Julia Roberts |
Chris Rock |
The Rock |
Sam Rockwell |
Michelle Rodriguez |
Robert Rodriguez |
Ray Romano |
Rebecca Romijn-Stamos |
Michael Rooker |
Michael Rosenbaum |
Gary Ross |
Tim Roth |
Mickey Rourke |
Richard Roxburgh |
Paul Rudd |
Mark Ruffalo |
Geoffrey Rush |
Keri Russell |
Kurt Russell |
Rene Russo |
Meg Ryan |
Winona Ryder |
Ludivine Sagnier |
Roselyn Sanchez |
Adam Sandler |
Susan Sarandon |
Peter Sarsgaard |
Devon Sawa |
John Sayles |
Rob Schneider |
Live Schreiber |
Matt Schulze |
Joel Schumacher |
Jason Schwartzman |
Arnold Schwarzenegger |
David Schwimmer |
Annabella Sciorra |
Martin Scorsese |
Dougray Scott |
Ridley Scott |
Tony Scott |
Seann William Scott |
Steven Seagal |
Rade Serbedzija |
Andy Serkis |
Chloe Sevigny |
Rufus Sewell |
Brendan Sexton III |
Tom Shadyac |
Tony Shalhoub |
Garry Shandling |
Molly Shannon |
William Shatner |
Martin Sheen |
Michael Sheen |
Marley Shelton |
Sam Shepard |
Dave Sheridan |
Martin Short |
Elisabeth Shue |
M. Night Shyamalan |
Brad Silberling |
Alicia Silverstone |
Bryan Singer |
John Singleton |
Gary Sinise |
Jeremy Sisto |
Tom Sizemore |
Stellan Skarsgard |
Tom Skerritt |
Christian Slater |
Amy Smart |
Jada Pinkett Smith |
Kerr Smith |
Kevin Smith |
Maggie Smith |
Will Smith |
Jimmy Smits |
Wesley Snipes |
Leelee Sobieski |
Steven Soderbergh |
Marla Sokoloff |
Todd Solondz |
Ian Somerhalder |
Stephen Sommers |
Mira Sorvino |
Paul Sorvino |
Shannyn Sossamon |
Sissy Spacek |
Kevin Spacey |
David Spade |
James Spader |
Scott Speedman |
Steven Spielberg |
Brent Spiner |
Nick Stahl |
Sylvester Stallone |
Terence Stamp |
Aaron Stanford |
Jason Statham |
Leslie Stefanson |
Toby Stephens |
Jon Stewart |
Patrick Stewart |
Julia Stiles |
Ben Stiller |
Eric Stoltz |
Oliver Stone |
Sharon Stone |
Peter Stormare |
Madeleine Stowe |
David Strathairn |
Meryl Streep |
Donald Sutherland |
Kiefer Sutherland |
Mena Suvari |
Dominique Swain |
Hilary Swank |
Kristy Swanson |
Patrick Swayze |
DB Sweeney |
Tilda Swinton |
Lee Tamahori |
Quentin Tarantino |
Audrey Tautou |
Lili Taylor |
Noah Taylor |
Charlize Theron |
Justin Theroux |
David Thewlis |
Sean Patrick Thomas |
Kristin Scott Thomas |
Betty Thomas |
Henry Thomas |
Emma Thompson |
Uma Thurman |
Maura Tierney |
Jennifer Tilly |
Marisa Tomei |
Rip Torn |
Stuart Townsend |
John Travolta |
Danny Trejo |
Jeanne Tripplehorn |
Stanley Tucci |
Chris Tucker |
Jonathan Tucker |
Robin Tunney |
John Turturro |
David Twohy |
Tom Tykwer |
Liv Tyler |
Skeet Ulrich |
Deborah Kara Unger |
Gabrielle Union |
Karl Urban |
James Van Der Beek |
Gus Van Sant |
Nia Vardalos |
Leonor Varela |
Michael Vartan |
Vince Vaughn |
Diane Venora |
Gore Verbinski |
Paul Verhoeven |
Goran Visnjic |
Mike Vogel |
Jon Voight |
Max Von Sydow |
Natasha Gregson Wagner |
Robert Wagner |
Mark Wahlberg |
Christopher Walken |
Paul Walker |
Julie Walters |
Wayne Wang |
Patrick Warburton |
Susan Ward |
Estella Warren |
Denzel Washington |
Isaiah Washington |
Kerry Washington |
John Waters |
Barry Watson |
Emily Watson |
Naomi Watts |
Keenen Ivory Wayans |
Damon Wayans |
Marlon Wayans |
Sigourney Weaver |
Hugo Weaving |
Peter Weir |
Rachel Weisz |
Chris Weitz |
Paul Weitz |
Tom Welling |
David Wenham |
Dominic West |
Shane West |
Simon West |
Forest Whitaker |
Mike White |
Dianne Wiest |
Tom Wilkinson |
Vanessa L. Williams |
Michelle Williams |
Olivia Williams |
Robin Williams |
Bruce Willis |
Lambert Wilson |
Luke Wilson |
Owen Wilson |
Patrick Wilson |
Rita Wilson |
Bridgette Wilson-Sampras |
Kate Winslet |
Ray Winstone |
Reese Witherspoon |
Alicia Witt |
John Woo |
Elijah Wood |
Alfre Woodard |
James Woods |
Jeffrey Wright |
Noah Wyle |
Donnie Yen |
Michelle Yeoh |
Sean Young |
Rick Yune |
Chow Yun-Fat |
Steve Zahn |
Renee Zellweger |
Robert Zemeckis |
Catherine Zeta-Jones |
Zhang Ziyi |
David Zucker |
Edward Zwick |
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Kendall, T.D. An empirical analysis of political activity in Hollywood. J Cult Econ 33, 19–47 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10824-008-9086-7
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10824-008-9086-7