Abstract
The Attitude Toward Own Aging (ATOA) Scale assesses an individual’s evaluation of their own aging, and has been widely used in the field of subjective aging literature. The present study examined whether the ATOA scale measures the same construct across middle-aged (40–60), young-old (61–74), and old-old adults (ages 75 or older) and also evaluated the construct validity of the ATOA construct in relation to measures of subjective well-being. Data drawn from the 2008 wave of the German Aging Survey (DEAS; n = 6091) were used. ATOA was assessed by the ATOA subscale of the Philadelphia Geriatric Center Morale Scale (PGCMS), and subjective well-being was assessed with the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) and the Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS). Confirmatory factor analysis revealed that the model fit of the one-factor model consisting of four items fits the data well. Multi-group invariance analyses provide evidence for configural and metric invariance of the ATOA scale across the age groups, but not for scalar invariance. Additional analysis assessing construct validity indicated that the ATOA items exhibited convergent validity. The findings support the utility of the 4-item scale when examining age group differences of ATOA across a wide age range and that ATOA is distinct from measures of subjective well-being.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 445–455). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Busseri, M. A., & Sadava, S. W. (2011). A review of the tripartite structure of subjective well-being, implications for conceptualization, operationalization, and synthesis. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 15, 290–314. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868310391271.
Charles, S. T., Reynolds, C. A., & Gatz, M. (2001). Age-related differences and changes in positive and negative affect over 23 years. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 136–151. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.80.1.136
Chen, F. F., Sousa, K. H., & West, S. G. (2005). Teacher’s corner: Testing measurement invariance of second-order factor models. Structural Equation Modeling, 12, 471–492. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15328007sem1203_7.
Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 9, 233–255. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15328007sem0902_5.
Diehl, M. K., & Wahl, H. W. (2010). Awareness of age-related change: Examination of a (mostly) unexplored concept. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 65, 340–350. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbp110.
Diehl, M., Wahl, H.-W., Barrett, A. E., Brothers, A. F., Miche, M., Montepare, J. M., et al. (2014). Awareness of aging: Theoretical considerations on an emerging concept. Developmental Review, 34, 93–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2014.01.001.
Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 95, 542–575. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.95.3.542.
Engstler, H., & Schmiade, N. (2013). The German Aging Survey (DEAS)—A longitudinal and time-series study of people in the second half of life. Schmollers Jahrbuch, 133, 97–107. https://doi.org/10.3790/schm.133.1.97.
German Centre of Gerontology (2008). German Ageing Survey [Data file and code book]. Retrieved from http://www.dza.de/en/research/deas.html.
Horn, J. L., & McArdle, J. J. (1992). A practical and theoretical guide to measurement invariance in aging research. Experimental Aging Research, 18, 117–144. https://doi.org/10.1080/03610739208253916.
Hu, L.-T., & Bentler, P. M. (1998). Fit indices in covariance structure modeling: Sensitivity to underparameterized model misspecification. Psychological Methods, 3, 424–453. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989x.3.4.424.
Hu, L.-T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6, 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118.
Isaacowitz, D. M., & Smith, J. (2003). Positive and negative affect in very old age. The Journals of Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 58, 143–152. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/58.3.p143.
Kessler, E.-M., & Staudinger, U. M. (2009). Affective experience in adulthood and old age: The role of affective arousal and perceived regulation. Psychology and Aging, 24, 349–362. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015352.
Kleinspehn-Ammerlahn, A., Kotter-Grühn, D., & Smith, J. (2008). Self-perceptions of aging: Do subjective age and satisfaction with aging change during old age? Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 63, 377–385. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/63.6.p377.
Kornadt, A. E., & Rothermund, K. (2012). Internalization of age stereotypes into the self-concept via future self-views: A general model and domain-specific differences. Psychology and Aging, 27, 164–172. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025110.
Kotter-Grühn, D., Kleinspehn-Ammerlahn, A., Gerstorf, D., & Smith, J. (2009). Self-perceptions of aging predict mortality and change with approaching death: 16-Year longitudinal results from the Berlin Aging Study. Psychology and Aging, 24, 654–667. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016510.
Lawton, M. P. (1975). The Philadelphia Geriatric Center Morale Scale: A revision. Journal of Gerontology, 30, 85–89. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronj/30.1.85.
Levy, B. R. (2003). Mind matters: Cognitive and physical effects of aging self-stereotypes. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 58, 203–211. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/58.4.p203.
Levy, B. R., Slade, M. D., & Kasl, S. V. (2002). Longitudinal benefit of positive self-perceptions of aging on functional health. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 57, 409–417. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/57.5.p409.
Levy, B. R., Slade, M. D., Kunkel, S. R., & Kasl, S. V. (2002). Longevity increased by positive self-perceptions of aging. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 261–270. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.83.2.261.
Levy, B. R., Zonderman, A. B., Slade, M. D., & Ferrucci, L. (2009). Age stereotypes held earlier in life predict cardiovascular events in later life. Psychological Science, 20, 296–298. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02298.x.
Liang, J., Lawrence, R. H., & Bollen, K. A. (1986). Age differences in the structure of the Philadelphia Geriatric Center Morale Scale. Psychology and Aging, 1, 27–33. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.1.1.27.
Ma, L., Green, K. E., & Cox, E. O. (2009). Stability of the Philadelphia Geriatric Center Morale Scale: A multidimensional item response model and Rasch analysis. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 29, 475–493. https://doi.org/10.1177/0733464809339623.
McCulloch, B. J. (1991). A longitudinal investigation of the factor structure of subjective well-being: The case of the Philadelphia Geriatric Center Morale Scale. Journal of Gerontology, 46, 251–258. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronj/46.5.p251.
Miche, M., Elsässer, V. C., Schilling, O. K., & Wahl, H. W. (2014). Attitude toward own aging in midlife and early old age over a 12-year period: Examination of measurement equivalence and developmental trajectories. Psychology and Aging, 29, 588–600. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037259.
Moor, C., Zimprich, D., Schmitt, M., & Kliegel, M. (2006). Personality, aging self-perceptions, and subjective health: A mediation model. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 63, 241–257. https://doi.org/10.2190/akry-um4k-pb1v-pbhf.
Moser, C., Spagnoli, J., & Santos-Eggimann, B. (2011). Self-perception of aging and vulnerability to adverse outcomes at the age of 65–70 years. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 66, 675–680. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbr052.
Mroczek, D. K., & Kolarz, C. M. (1998). The effect of age on positive and negative affect: A developmental perspective on happiness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 1333–1349. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.75.5.1333.
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2012). Mplus user’s guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles: Muthén & Muthén.
Nelson, T. D. (Ed.). (2004). Ageism: Stereotyping and prejudice against older persons. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Niklasson, J., Conradsson, M., Hörnsten, C., Nyqvist, F., Padyab, M., Nygren, B., … Gustafson, Y. (2015). Psychometric properties and feasibility of the Swedish version of the Philadelphia Geriatric Center Morale Scale. Quality of Life Research, 24, 2795–2805. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-015-1009-4.
Palmore, E. (2001). The ageism survey first findings. The Gerontologist, 41, 572–575. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/41.5.572.
Pavot, W., & Diener, E. (1993). Review of the satisfaction with life scale. Psychological Assessment, 5, 164–172. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.5.2.164.
Pinar, R., & Oz, H. (2010). Validity and reliability of the Philadelphia Geriatric Center Morale Scale among Turkish elderly people. Quality of Life Research, 20, 9–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-010-9723-4.
Rothermund, K., & Brandtstädter, J. (2003). Age stereotypes and self-views in later life: Evaluating rival assumptions. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 27, 549–554. https://doi.org/10.1080/01650250344000208.
Salthouse, T. A., Atkinson, T. M., & Berish, D. E. (2003). Executive functioning as a potential mediator of age-related cognitive decline in normal adults. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 132, 566–594. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.132.4.566.
Sargent-Cox, K. A., Anstey, K. J., & Luszcz, M. A. (2012). The relationship between change in self-perceptions of aging and physical functioning in older adults. Psychology and Aging, 27, 750–760. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027578.
Satorra, A. (2000). Scaled and adjusted restricted tests in multi-sample analysis of moment structures. In R.D.H. Heijmans, D.S.G. Pollock & A. Satorra (Eds.), Innovations in multivariate statistical analysis. A Festschrift for Heinz Neudecker (pp. 233–247). London: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Satorra, A., & Bentler, P. M. (1994). Corrections to test statistics and standard errors in covariance structure analysis. In A. von Eye & C. C. Clogg (Eds.), Latent variable analysis: Applications to developmental research (pp. 399–419). Newbury Park: Sage.
Settersten, R. A., Jr, & Mayer, K. U. (1997). The measurement of age, age structuring, and the life course. Annual Review of Sociology, 23, 233–261. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.23.1.233.
Siedlecki, K. L., Tucker-Drob, E. M., Oishi, S., & Salthouse, T. A. (2008). Life satisfaction across adulthood: Different determinants at different ages? The Journal of Positive Psychology, 3, 153–164. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760701834602.
Steverink, N., Westerhof, G. J., Bode, C., & Dittmann-Kohli, F. (2001). The personal experience of aging, individual resources, and subjective well-being. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 56, 364–373. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/56.6.P364.
Stock, W. A., Okun, M. A., & Benito, J. A. G. (1994). Subjective well-being measures: Reliability and validity among Spanish elders. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 38, 221–235. https://doi.org/10.2190/mggy-kfn3-m4yr-dfn4.
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS Scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063–1070. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063.
Wong, E., Woo, J., Hui, E., & Ho, S. C. (2004). Examination of the Philadelphia Geriatric Morale Scale as a subjective quality-of-life measure in elderly Hong Kong Chinese. The Gerontologist, 44, 408–417. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/44.3.408.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the staff of German Centre of Gerontology for providing the dataset.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Jung, S., Siedlecki, K.L. Attitude Toward Own Aging: Age Invariance and Construct Validity Across Middle-Aged, Young-Old, and Old-Old Adults. J Adult Dev 25, 141–149 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-018-9283-3
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-018-9283-3